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A national survey was undertaken in 1993 to discover what approaches and materials state agencies recommend in the teaching of reading and literature to students in elementary and secondary school bilingual and English-as-a-Second-Language (ESL) programs. The report summarizes the study methodology and findings in these areas: existence and content of a state curriculum guide of framework for bilingual/ESL programs; enrollments of limited-English-proficient (LEP) students; instructional support offered by the state in the form of teacher handbooks, materials addressing specific LEP populations; adherence to local control in bilingual/ESL instruction; alignment of bilingual/ESL programs with English language arts programs; use of multifunctional resource centers; workshop and conference offerings for bilingual/ESL teachers; use of core instructional materials lists; and common issues encountered by state ESL/bilingual program directors, including reorganization and reduced resources, lack of trained teachers, difficulty in collecting and disseminating useful "fugitive" material within the state, and time pressures. A brief bibliography is included, and summaries of survey findings and lists of relevant state publications are appended. (MSE)

How developed, integrated and focused a nation has been is partly a function of her level of literacy. Hence, every nation desires full literacy that involves the two skills of reading and writing. Both skills are as elusive as they are rewarding, especially if they have to be acquired from a Second position, such as occupied by English in Nigeria. Over the years in the country, learner performance in the language has been a source of worry to the school system and other stakeholders. Nevertheless, the mutual, complementary teaching of the skills could make them fairly easy to acquire. This paper canvases that reading and writing be taught interactively in the English as the Second Language (ESL) context for effective learning.

Appropriate teaching approaches in teaching reading comprehension in English as a second language are vital to ensure maximum instructional delivery and understanding of the text that is being read. This study sought to establish teachers’ views on teaching approaches used in teaching reading comprehension in English as a second language in the Shiselweni region of Eswatini. The study was located in the interpretivist research paradigm and followed a qualitative research approach which applied a case study design. Individual interviews and observations were used to collect data. A purposive sample of seven 7 teachers was used. Data were analyzed for content and conclusions were drawn. The findings of the study revealed that reading comprehension was best taught using an integrated approach towards the teaching of language arts skills. Another finding was that teachers encountered a number of constraints in the teaching of reading for comprehension in English. These include lack of time and adequate resources. The study further disclosed that learners shared English text books which made it challenging for them to read considering their differences in their reading speed. This was also found to be challenging to teachers as they have to refer to these text books. The study also revealed that there is a disconnection between the English taught in teacher education programs and that taught in the primary school curriculum. The study recommended that updating and diversifying the teaching approaches can help maximize instruction delivery. Nxumalo Zodwa G. | Bhebhe Sithulisiwe | Mamba Lungile, P. "Teachers’ Views on Approaches used for Teaching Reading Comprehension in English as a Second Language in Primary Schools in the Shiselweni Region of Eswatini" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-5 , August 2022, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd50521.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/50521/teachers’-views-on-approaches-used-for-teaching-reading-comprehension-in-english-as-a-second-language-in-primary-schools-in-the-shiselweni-region-of-eswatini/nxumalo-zodwa-g

During the past decades, the way that researchers and educators understand and describe the process of reading has been revolutionised. The present article examines the current developments in reading abilities among second language readers. The developments are further discussed in terms of a theory of general second language proficiency encompassing both oral and written language. Implications on the nature of second language reading, the database in second language reading, text-and knowledge-driven operations in second language reading, and second language reading classroom factors have been provided. Assessment of comprehension is briefly reviewed, and recommendations are provided for theoretical, cultural, and educational implications. An overview of an experimental fluency programme that attempts to address multiple components in the development of reading abilities has also been discussed.

Reading interests is important in enhancing students' success in school and out of it. Hence, students need to have high reading interests. The purpose of this study was to identify students' reading interests in reading second language materials and to examine the differences in students' reading interests based on genders. This study was carried out among 86 Form Four students in Kuala Terengganu with simple random sampling using a 6-item questionnaire adapted and adopted from Marrero (2009). Data were analysed as well as presented in the form of frequency, means, standard deviation and independent t-test. From this study, it is found that students have relatively low interests in reading English materials and that there is a significant difference between male and female students. From these findings, it can be suggested that stakeholders should take action with regards to developing and enhancing male students' reading interests. It is hoped that the finding of this study would enlighten the relevant literature of the area.

Reading interests is important in enhancing students' success in school and out of it. Hence, students need to have high reading interests. The purpose of this study was to identify students' reading interests in reading second language materials and to examine the differences in students' reading interests based on genders. This study was carried out among 86 Form Four students in Kuala Terengganu with simple random sampling using a 6-item questionnaire adapted and adopted from Marrero (2009). Data were analysed as well as presented in the form of frequency, means, standard deviation and independent t-test. From this study, it is found that students have relatively low interests in reading English materials and that there is a significant difference between male and female students. From these findings, it can be suggested that stakeholders should take action with regards to developing and enhancing male students' reading interests. It is hoped that the finding of this study would enlighten the relevant literature of the area.

Many language learners lack the motivation to read complex texts. Because high-immersion Virtual Reality (VR) is increasingly reported to be highly motivating, the goal of our study was to compare English as a Second Language (ESL) learners' (N=79) motivation while reading a story with subtitles in VR (experimental group) versus reading the same story screencast in two-dimensions (2D -- control group). The Wilcoxon signed-rank test revealed that learners' motivation in VR was significantly higher compared with the control group. Our finding confirmed that VR is highly motivational in the context of reading foreign texts and can be useful for Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) researchers, practitioners, and instructional designers. This analysis is a part of a larger study (Kaplan-Rakowski & Gruber, 2023) on VR facilitating reading tasks. [For the complete volume, "Intelligent CALL, Granular Systems and Learner Data: Short Papers from EUROCALL 2022 (30th, Reykjavik, Iceland, August 17-19, 2022)," see ED624779.]

Research comparing the reading strategy use of native and second language (L2) readers has often relied on self-report measures and has, at times, been conducted without measures of reading proficiency. In the present study, we used regression and Bayes' factors to explore how L2 reader status and reading proficiency relate to self-report reading strategy use and the use of situated text processing strategies (i.e., paraphrasing, bridging, elaboration). Data were collected from a South-Central community college district as part of an ongoing study. L2 status did not predict self-reported strategy use, bridging, or elaboration, but was associated with increased paraphrasing (in the regression analysis only). Reading proficiency was negatively associated with self-reported use of support strategies, but positively predicted the use of all situated processing strategies. Results have important implications for L2 learning and instruction and provide insights into aspects of assessment for L2 readers. [This paper will be published in "Discourse Processes." The title of the published article will be "Exploring Reading Strategy Use in Native and ESL Readers."]

Six basic considerations in teaching literature to gifted children in grades four through six are presented in the first half of this curriculum guide: (1) The teacher needs a broad knowledge of literature, as well as a sensitivity to students, in order to recommend literature for each child. (2) The teacher's method of presentation is important. (3) The reading preferences of the child should be honored. (4) The interrelationship of content and skills must be recognized. (5) The gifted child should be encouraged to develop higher intellectual skills such as evaluation, critical and creative thinking, recognition of implication, development of hypotheses, and comparison and contrast. (6) Varied types of literature should be suggested by the teacher. The second half of the curriculum guide offers four sample units with suggested activities and readings given for each unit. The units are entitled: "Conformity and Rebellious Behavior,""Science Fiction and Fantasy Literature,""A Study of the Works of One Author," and "Use of Historical Fiction." The two appendixes offer a sample comprehensive literature unit and a suggested literature/language arts curriculum for academically gifted students. (JF)

A study investigated the use of a collection of English language books by Doshisha University (Japan) students of English as a Second Language (n=300). Four levels of readers, graded by vocabulary content were used in eight classes that offered individualized reading instruction. Students were given instruction in using graded readers, strongly encouraged or required to read them, given book report sheets, and, in freshman classes, offered extra credit for each book report. Analysis of student use of the books found that 161 read at least 1 book and turned in a report, and 69 of 207, who were offered extra credit did book reports. Choice of difficulty level was similar for students doing required reading and earning extra credit. About 90% of the books read were at the elementary or low-intermediate levels. Book level correlated positively with number of pages and time spent reading the book. Students evaluated the books for interest, maturity of content, usefulness, satisfaction, their own willingness to recommend them to friends, organization, difficulty of grammar, vocabulary, overall English, and prior knowledge needed for comprehension. Students also ranked their favorite books. Implications for language instruction are discussed. Materials used in the study, including the student survey and a list of graded readers, are appended. (MSE)

The ultimate aim of any reading effort is to first and foremost comprehend the message of the text being read. It is only when one comprehends that one enjoys a given text and one is expected to react, evaluate and benefit from the reading exercise. Reading, whether in the first or second language context, involves the reader and the text. Although reading in the L1 shares numerous important basic elements with reading in the L2, the processes differ. This paper focuses on the challenges English Language learners face in achieving autonomy in reading comprehension. The paper also offers suggestions for teachers of English as a second language to enable them achieve better service delivery. One of such suggestions is that teachers of L2 readers should create time to build their learners"™ background knowledge to enable them create mental schema for text organization. This will help them to achieve autonomy in reading. Clement Gowon Omachonu PhD | Sunday Sule Emah PhD"Repositioning Reading Comprehension for Learner Autonomy in English as a Second Language" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-5 , August 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd15870.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/english/15870/repositioning-reading-comprehension-for-learner-autonomy-in-english-as-a-second-language/clement-gowon-omachonu-phd

Includes indexes

Includes indexes

Includes indexes

Reviewing the literature is an important part of academic work, as it helps readers see what has come before, what has and has not worked, and situates the author's place in the ongoing discussion. Accepting this view, extensive reading literature often points to Day and Bamford (1988) as identifying Kelly (1969) as crediting Palmer (1921) as the first to apply the term extensive reading (ER) in L2 pedagogy. At the time of Day and Bamford and Kelly's publications, a reference to Palmer was a worthy seminal identification as literature searches were not aided by today's more powerful electronic databases. Utilizing more modern search tools (Archive.org, Google Books, JSTOR, Project Gutenberg, Google Books) and the archival works they provide, we extend the discussion by offering a more complete history of the term for researchers to draw from. Specifically, we (a) explore early L1 uses of the term and (b) point to three new L2 seminal benchmarks: the earliest (1) use of the term (2) intensive/extensive distinction; and (3) definition found to date. We then (c) continue our discussion up through today's modern definitions of the term. Directions for future studies are also discussed.

Reviewing the literature is an important part of academic work, as it helps readers see what has come before, what has and has not worked, and situates the author's place in the ongoing discussion. Accepting this view, extensive reading literature often points to Day and Bamford (1988) as identifying Kelly (1969) as crediting Palmer (1921) as the first to apply the term extensive reading (ER) in L2 pedagogy. At the time of Day and Bamford and Kelly's publications, a reference to Palmer was a worthy seminal identification as literature searches were not aided by today's more powerful electronic databases. Utilizing more modern search tools (Archive.org, Google Books, JSTOR, Project Gutenberg, Google Books) and the archival works they provide, we extend the discussion by offering a more complete history of the term for researchers to draw from. Specifically, we (a) explore early L1 uses of the term and (b) point to three new L2 seminal benchmarks: the earliest (1) use of the term (2) intensive/extensive distinction; and (3) definition found to date. We then (c) continue our discussion up through today's modern definitions of the term. Directions for future studies are also discussed.

Reviewing the literature is an important part of academic work, as it helps readers see what has come before, what has and has not worked, and situates the author's place in the ongoing discussion. Accepting this view, extensive reading literature often points to Day and Bamford (1988) as identifying Kelly (1969) as crediting Palmer (1921) as the first to apply the term extensive reading (ER) in L2 pedagogy. At the time of Day and Bamford and Kelly's publications, a reference to Palmer was a worthy seminal identification as literature searches were not aided by today's more powerful electronic databases. Utilizing more modern search tools (Archive.org, Google Books, JSTOR, Project Gutenberg, Google Books) and the archival works they provide, we extend the discussion by offering a more complete history of the term for researchers to draw from. Specifically, we (a) explore early L1 uses of the term and (b) point to three new L2 seminal benchmarks: the earliest (1) use of the term (2) intensive/extensive distinction; and (3) definition found to date. We then (c) continue our discussion up through today's modern definitions of the term. Directions for future studies are also discussed.

Reviewing the literature is an important part of academic work, as it helps readers see what has come before, what has and has not worked, and situates the author's place in the ongoing discussion. Accepting this view, extensive reading literature often points to Day and Bamford (1988) as identifying Kelly (1969) as crediting Palmer (1921) as the first to apply the term extensive reading (ER) in L2 pedagogy. At the time of Day and Bamford and Kelly's publications, a reference to Palmer was a worthy seminal identification as literature searches were not aided by today's more powerful electronic databases. Utilizing more modern search tools (Archive.org, Google Books, JSTOR, Project Gutenberg, Google Books) and the archival works they provide, we extend the discussion by offering a more complete history of the term for researchers to draw from. Specifically, we (a) explore early L1 uses of the term and (b) point to three new L2 seminal benchmarks: the earliest (1) use of the term (2) intensive/extensive distinction; and (3) definition found to date. We then (c) continue our discussion up through today's modern definitions of the term. Directions for future studies are also discussed.

The term "direct instruction" is often used by researchers and educators as if there were consensus regarding its meaning, when in fact, it covers a variety of qualitative differences. To test this hypothesis, two second grade teachers, each categorized as a proponent of direct instruction, were studied using descriptive techniques. The first teacher, a regular classroom teacher, had taught for 7 years, was a leader of a second-grade teaching team, was completing a masters degree, welcomed professional growth opportunities, and aspired to be a leader in staff development. The second teacher was a professor and researcher of reading instruction who had previously taught in elementary schools. Each teacher was observed daily for 7 days, interviewed twice, and maintained a daily journal about his or her teaching. These data were used to compile case studies of the two teachers. Analysis of the data revealed that, while both teachers were superficially similar in terms of professional concern, management, grouping, and treatment of high and low reading groups, they were quite different in their conception of instructional role, response to mandates, and use of commercial materials. The findings support the hypothesis that the term direct instruction can mean many things. (Appendixes contain the case studies of the two teachers.) (FL)

The design of an effective reading course in English for academic purposes must be based on an understanding of the reading process (including perceptual skills and cognitive processing), an understanding of problems in mastering the English writing system (punctuation, decoding handwriting, and confusion between typefaces), and an awareness of the deficiencies the particular learner group must overcome. Assessment of learners' reading skills, by a variety of techniques, in the context of their language backgrounds can then lead to development of materials and methods for effective reading instruction. English as a second language (ESL) programs have adopted a number of approaches to these issues; both theories and procedures are in the process of being refined. Instructor familiarity with foreign languages, especially those with a different writing system, is also helpful in ESL reading instruction. Examples of a number of teaching and testing exercises are included. A six-page bibliography concludes the document. (MSE)

The bibliography contains 159 annotated citations for works of various kinds relating to the use of extensive reading in second, foreign, and heritage language instruction. An introductory section describes the origins of the citations and construction and use of the bibliography. Citations contain basic bibliographic information and annotations that range from very brief to extensive. (MSE)

Four papers on reading in a second language are reviewed and discussed. They include a study of assessment and the difficulties inherent in the measurement of a construct as complex as reading comprehension. The other three deal with variables facilitating comprehension in reading. One supports an interactive model of reading rather than a skills-based model for promoting reading success. Another suggests that texts providing better contextual and linguistic clues would stimulate better comprehension and recall, and the third proposes training in topical structure analysis as a means for improving comprehension. (MSE)

This introduction to the pedagogy of reading comprehension in a second language focuses on learning strategies appropriate to achieving reading competence. Lexical strategies can be fostered by tolerating local errors and encouraging practice in the identification of specific features such as tense, part of speech, and cognation. Tasks that require the student to use inferential reasonsing or evaluative judgments develop comprehension of meaning. Attention to the global features of the grammar facilitates the recognition of word and phrase relationships within substantial structures. The role of orientational reference (deixis) as a feature of tests is discussed, the multiple use of texts (for differing tasks such as skimming and critical reading) is encouraged, and suggestions are offered regarding text selection. A bibliography is appended. (JB)

The ability of children to process words printed in a second language was studied over the course of a school year as the children acquired increasing familiarity with the language. The children, ranging in age from 5 to 15 years, represented four ability groups with respect to their reading skills in their first and second languages. A picture-word interference task assessed the degree to which children processed word meaning automatically. The task required children to name pictures in their first language while ignoring distractor words printed within the pictures' borders. On same-language (SL) trials, the printed distractor words appeared in the child's first language. On cross-language (CL) trials, the distractor words appeared in the child's second language. The results indicated that second language words were automatically processed to the level of meaning early in the course of second language reading instruction. Both the pattern and the amount of CL interference generally matched that for SL trials. The common pattern of interference for both the SL and CL manipulations across several conditions that varied the picture-word meaning relation suggested that a superordinate conceptual representation served both language lexicons. (Author/AMH)

An experimental investigation conducted in a rural area of the Province of Quebec (Canada) was designed to show that the assignment of specific reading tasks enhances the development of listening comprehension ability when using authentic video material with intermediate-level English-as-a-Second-Language (ESL) learners. Using a pre-test post-test control group design, the study involved 53 students. It was found that through the use of scripted authentic video materials combined with specific reading and listening tasks, the ESL learners in the experimental group showed significant progress in listening comprehension ability. However, the ESL learners in the control group who were merely assigned specific listening tasks showed no significant progress in the same ability over the same period of time. It is concluded that reading a tapescript of video materials prior to viewing them prepares learners to recognize and decode what they hear. Appended are: a description of content in audio-visual materials and nature of listening tasks; vocabulary and expressions studies; and video quizzes. Contains 31 references. (LB)

This collection of language activities for the Hispanic adult English-as-a-Second-Language (ESL) student emphasizes real life vocabulary and skills. It is addressed to the student, except where a facilitator is needed for dictation exercises. Nonetheless, an instructor's help is necessary for the manual's use. Vocabulary lists in Spanish and English are on these topics: emergency phone calls, arranging for and maintaining utilities services, applying to purchase or rent a home, and applying for a job. A blank job application and lease form are included. Short paragraphs, written by former ESL students, on such topics as drugs, aging parents, disciplining children, and the differences between food in the United States and Puerto Rico also appear. They are intended to stimulate discussion and form the basis for activities in pronunciation, comprehension, writing, and making inferences. (CML)

Some general principles of teaching reading in the second language classroom are reviewed. To illustrate the connection between theory and practice, examples are provided of teaching practices used with adult learners of English as a Second language (ESL) who have Chinese and Vietnamese-language backgrounds. A discussion follows of how instruction in reading strategies affects reading comprehension, how strategy instruction can be conducted, and which instructional activities appear to increase the effectiveness of strategy instruction. Issues discussed include how to define and explain strategies, classroom procedures for direct strategy instruction, individual practice tasks used, individualizing strategy instruction and practice, and the relationship between strategy use and text selection. Appended materials include the instructions for a reading task and related comprehension questions, and a sample reading checklist used by the teacher for analyzing and recording the student's skills. Contains 29 references. (MSE)

This bibliography cites books and articles pertaining to reading skills and reading instruction in English as a foreign or second language. Entries include publications from a wide range of countries, and most have been published since 1965. (CLK)

The purpose of this study was to determine if the patterning of the responses of English as a Second Language (ESL) students to a reading comprehension test would change over time due to the restructuring of the subjects ESL reading comprehension competence as they increased their overall ESL proficiency. In this context, restructuring refers to the reorganization of existing knowledge, the reallocation of processing resources, or the transformation of one kind of knowledge structure into another. A 30-item reading comprehension test was administered to the same subject pool of 31 intensive ESL students at three different strata of proficiency. The responses were submitted to principal component analysis, which identified the single best summary of linear relationships in each data set. The results indicate that the linear relationships manifested in the responses from the first administration did not change significantly during the two subsequent test administrations. It may be the case that no evidence of change was seen in the linear relationships in the responses because the subjects had not reached a point in their ESL reading comprehension competence sufficient to produce a patterning change. Another possible explanation is the use of a recognition format reading comprehension test to explore change. (Contains 2 tables and 26 references.) (Author/SLD)

122 p. ; 20 cm

The bilingual education program in a given community should be based on a sociolinguistic assessment of that community, and community members should be involved in assessing the surrounding bilingual reality and in deciding whether they wish to mirror that reality in the biliteracy program. This paper presents alternatives for bilingual programs based on the nature and objectives of the community. The program models presented illustrate the relative use of the native language or dialect and the second language or dialect in areas of concept development, prereading skills, written and oral language development, and reading instruction. (VM)

It is known through different means that the learning a second language implicates several challenges in relation to reading comprehension, the levels of difficulty are different from one student to another. I had created a Handbook of Strategies to Enhance Reading Comprehension in a Second Language, which was elaborated based on my experience as a literacy teacher in a second language, as well as from sources of information such as Professional Developments I have received, interviewing and observing colleagues, and information gathered on textbooks on reading comprehension and some research on the internet. Each of the strategies included in the Handbook of Strategies to Enhance Reading Comprehension in a Second Language has been used in a second language classroom and has been based on work created by literacy experts and researchers with a pedagogical intent; therefore, they are easy to understand and apply, with the idea of providing classroom teachers and other interested professionals with a beginners guide to follow and ideas that they can apply for the benefit of English language learners who they instruct. It would be a remarkable experience if the contribution of my handbook of strategies would reach, in addition to teachers, parents, and any other person or organization that is interested in the students of a second language effectively understanding the reading of any material in a second language, whether visual or written

Several general text characteristics can have significant impact on reasoning and comprehension. In our efforts to examine the strategies ESL (english as a Second Language) students' employ when learning from test, it became necessary to carefully examine such test characteristics. We first review the literature on ESL students' study strategies and how they might interact with formating and linguistic conventions in text. Three classes of discourse-level phenomena are then described and illustrated with examples from typical college text: topic development and background knowledge, subordination, and logical connectors. We suggest several ways in which these potentially impact ESL reading strategies. Finally, directions for research and some preliminary empirical findings from work conducted with ESL students are presented. (KR)

The notion of integrating reading and writing in L1 and L2 literacy education is not new; however, only until recently has the reading-writing connection received enough attention and been implemented in the teaching of L1 and L2. This paper aims to search for the most current, up-to-dated, approach that best incorporates the idea of reading-writing connection. It first reviews literature and former studies that support that reading and writing mutually reinforce each other in both L1 and L2 literacy development. Furthermore, it discusses the interface where writer meets reader as well as writing meets reading. Next, a survey of the 223 TESOL graduate programs in North America attempts to examine how professional ESL/EFL teacher education institutes are practicing the latest theory of reading and writing, followed by a questionnaire answered by 14 teachers-in-preparation (both native and non-native speakers of American English) who shared their general concept regarding the teaching of reading and writing. Based on the findings, this paper calls for a balanced curriculum in which reading, writing, and reading-writing integration are dealt in three separated, independent courses with individually specific focuses as each of them has a strong impact on the overall proficiency of L2 students' acquisition of English. The following are appended: (1) A Curious Questionnaire; (2) A figure showing the reading and writing courses offered in TESOL programs in the US. (Contains 3 tables.) [This paper was published in: The Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on English Teaching and Learning in the Republic of China, (pp. 799-821), Chaoyang University of Technology, Taichung, Taiwan.]

The notion of integrating reading and writing in L1 and L2 literacy education is not new; however, only until recently has the reading-writing connection received enough attention and been implemented in the teaching of L1 and L2. This paper aims to search for the most current, up-to-dated, approach that best incorporates the idea of reading-writing connection. It first reviews literature and former studies that support that reading and writing mutually reinforce each other in both L1 and L2 literacy development. Furthermore, it discusses the interface where writer meets reader as well as writing meets reading. Next, a survey of the 223 TESOL graduate programs in North America attempts to examine how professional ESL/EFL teacher education institutes are practicing the latest theory of reading and writing, followed by a questionnaire answered by 14 teachers-in-preparation (both native and non-native speakers of American English) who shared their general concept regarding the teaching of reading and writing. Based on the findings, this paper calls for a balanced curriculum in which reading, writing, and reading-writing integration are dealt in three separated, independent courses with individually specific focuses as each of them has a strong impact on the overall proficiency of L2 students' acquisition of English. The following are appended: (1) A Curious Questionnaire; (2) A figure showing the reading and writing courses offered in TESOL programs in the US. (Contains 3 tables.) [This paper was published in: The Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on English Teaching and Learning in the Republic of China, (pp. 799-821), Chaoyang University of Technology, Taichung, Taiwan.]

This teacher's guide, intended for the instruction of both French as a first language and French as a second language in an immersion setting, provides a host of strategies for teaching reading skills in the classroom (Grades 1 through 7). Section 1 is designed to bring the teacher's awareness to the training procedure, discussing the motivation to learn new strategies, preparing for their implementation, and the transfer of knowledge. Section 2 presents the practical aspects of the reading strategies, including preparation, implementation, and evaluation. (AS)

This teacher's guide, intended for the instruction of both French as a first language and French as a second language in an immersion setting, provides a host of strategies for teaching reading skills in the classroom (Grades 1 through 7). Section 1 is designed to bring the teacher's awareness to the training procedure, discussing the motivation to learn new strategies, preparing for their implementation, and the transfer of knowledge. Section 2 presents the practical aspects of the reading strategies, including preparation, implementation, and evaluation. (AS)

Previous studies have shown that reading direction of a language affects the direction in which events are organized and processed (Christman and Pinger, 1997). For example, when presented with mirrored images of moving objects, speakers of languages written from left-to-right (e.g., English) were found to prefer the images with a rightward directionality, while right-to-left readers (e.g., Hebrew speakers) preferred the ones with a leftward directionality (Nachson, Argaman, & Luria, 1999; Chokron & De Agostini, 2000). Limited evidence suggests a similar influence of reading direction on language processing tasks. One example is experiments testing language comprehension, in which monolingual speakers of left-to-right/right-to-left languages were asked to listen to action sentences and then create spatial representations of them by drawing. Speakers of left-to-right languages (e.g., German) tended to place the agent on the left of their drawings, while a reversed pattern was observed for speakers of right-to-left languages (e.g., Hebrew) (Maass and Russo, 2003; Dobel, Diesendruck and Bölte, 2007). Another example is studies investigating language production, where monolingual participants had to form sentences after being presented with two images side-by-side or one image with two characters. Speakers of left-to-right languages preferred to use the left image or character as the sentences’ subject, and vice versa for speakers of right-to-left languages (Bergen and Chan, 2005; Esaulova et al., 2021). To account for these findings and the impact of reading direction on cognition, several explanations were proposed. The first one was the cultural hypothesis, which postulates that repetitive behaviours associated with culture may reinforce or affect the existing functional hemispheric specializations, presumably at the level of cognitive strategies (Chokron, 2002; Paulesu et al., 2000). Reading and writing may act as such behaviour, leading to a leftward or rightward bias respective to the specific scanning bias of the language (Paulesu et al., 2000). The scanning bias is then reinforced as the reading direction of the language also affects other aspects of the culture, such as the direction of timelines (Fuhrman and Boroditsky, 2007, 2010). This hypothesis suggests that the described effect is mainly due to exposure to culture and is not language-specific. This might also explain the reports of no bias for speakers of left-to-right/right-to-left language, who live in a country where they are predominantly exposed to the opposing scanning direction (Altmann et al., 2006; Kazandjian et al., 2011). The cultural hypothesis, however, cannot account for the findings showing that the spatial bias in one’s mother tongue is not affected by long-term exposure to cultures in which languages are read in the opposite direction (Bergen and Chan, 2005). This theory also cannot explain the results of Román et al. (2015), showing that brief exposure to right-to-left text has led to a temporary change in the directionality of drawings of auditory sentences by Spanish speakers. A different approach for explaining the causes of this effect can be found in the Spatial Agency Bias (SAB) model (Suitner and Maass. 2016). This model proposes that this observed asymmetry develops from the embodied and habitual processes of handwriting and visual scanning involved in reading (Suitner et al., 2021). According to the model, the reading direction of a language determines where our attention is allocated initially, and which direction it follows. That leads to the creation of a generalized schema for action, which is then used for mental representation and interpretation across different cognitive tasks. Although theoretically sound, the SAB model has yet been empirically validated. The present study fills the current gap by offering the following: A) To add further evidence to the current literature on the potential effect of reading direction on language production, by comparing monolingual speakers of languages that were not yet tested (Hebrew and Persian). Hebrew offers an interesting case for studying the embodied aspect of the SAB model since the Hebrew letters cannot be joined and most of its characters are formed from left-to-right, unlike the cursive script and characters used in Arabic and Persian (Tversky et al., 1991). Furthermore, testing Persian allows us to address the recent advancement in the SAB model, suggesting that this spatial bias is weaker in flexible languages compared to rigid ones. Persian is considered a more flexible language due to omitting of first, second and third-person subjects being common, unlike in English and Hebrew (Vainikka & Levy, 1995). B) To examine if this effect is driven by (1) the directionality embedded within a culture, (2) uneven attention allocation, as proposed by the SAB model, or (3) language-specific representational schema regardless of cultural conventions or attentional allocation. The focus of this project is language production, and thus we will explore the mental representations generated during sentence production in two experiments. The participants will be asked to view side-by-side images and write sentences using the presented objects (based on Bergen and Chan, 2005). We aim to examine the three possible interpretations described above by testing English speakers residing in the UK, Hebrew speakers residing in Israel, and Persian speakers living outside of Iran (i.e., exposed to an opposite scanning bias) to address the cultural influence. We will also track the participants’ mouse movements during the experiment to monitor their attention, and finally, we will test bilinguals alongside monolinguals to examine whether their results differ depending on the experiment's input language (English or Hebrew/Persian). To control for the bilinguals' exposure to the opposing scanning bias and other languages, we will seek information about the following: their time spent living abroad, level of usage of English in daily life, knowledge of other foreign languages (Maass and Russo, 2003). We will also evaluate their English proficiency by using two tasks to measure reading fluency, taken from the standardized English test PTE (Pearson Test of English) (Pae, 2012; Riazi, 2013).

Developing an appropriate competence in reading in English as a second language is a key factor for subsequent academic success. This study investigated second language reading anxiety of secondary school students. A questionnaire was distributed to 72 female students and focus-group interviews were conducted with 19 volunteer students. Overall results reveal significant differences between the levels of reading anxiety reported by students relative to their general area of study (viz., science or arts). All the recorded differences were in favor of students in the science track. Most of the sources of reading anxiety that were identified by the students were related to language proficiency, specifically knowledge of vocabulary and grammatical rules.

Nineteenth- and twentieth-century models of first and second language reading are examined and compared. Figures are provided of six models that propose relationships among visual input and processes, auditory input, phonological processes, and comprehension. These models illustrate the processes that may be operating in persons who achieve their initial literacy in a second language and in those who learn to read in a second language after becoming literate in their native language. There is controversy regarding whether comprehension is dependent on phonological processes or can occur directly from visual input in fluent readers. Six possible single routes and numerous multiple routes for comprehension of second language texts are identified. The nineteenth-century models are equally complex, providing for recoding of auditory input into visual form as well as for reading aloud without comprehension. In conclusion, there is a need for models that summarize existing data, and for more complex models that generate hypotheses. (RW)

The International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement's (IEA's) Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) 2011 provided evidence which showed differences in the reading achievement of students who spoke the language of assessment at home and those who did not for many countries including a selection of the participating "post-colonial countries". Colonization of these countries by different European nations occurred as early as the 1600s, through to the 1800s. The language of the colonizing nation was most often imposed (formally and informally) upon indigenous population(s) and became the official (legally or by its widespread use) language(s) of the country. These countries are now presented with challenges surrounding finding an appropriate balance between having policies that support and value indigenous and heritage languages, and policies that promote and support the official or colonizing language(s). It is not uncommon in countries such as Australia, Canada and New Zealand, for the dominant colonizing language(s) to be viewed as being of greater value, particularly when supporting new immigrants without local (colonizing) language skills. Understanding the effect of language policies, both past and present, is important to interpreting the achievement differences for these countries. Although beyond the scope of this brief, countries and systems that are developing language policies for populations, especially for their minority groups, may also learn from these countries' experiences. Out of the nine education systems investigated, the language of learning was found to have a positive relationship with reading achievement in most post-colonial contexts and, in particular, in English-speaking contexts, even when the socioeconomic status of the students was taken into account.

Both language and mind wandering have been strongly linked to reading, however there remains very scarce literature on their intersection. For instance, there are very few existing studies evaluating mind wandering in the context of reading in a second language, and none to our knowledge that explicitly evaluate the relationship of mind wandering and reading within the context of second-language reading. Given the large and expanding portion of the United States student body classified as English learners receiving instruction in their second language, who are at greater risk for academic problems, this remains a critical area of study. Therefore, the goals of this project are to examine mind wandering and its role in regard to reading in a second language in a sample of at-risk middle school students with consideration of relevant language factors. The sample includes 199 students enrolled in grade 6-8 who were identified as struggling readers; approximately half of the participating students have also been designated as limited English proficient (LEP) by their school, with Spanish as their first language. Each student completed an assessment including measures of mind wandering, reading, and additional measures. LEP students also completed further language proficiency measures for English and Spanish. Correlations, ANCOVA, and moderated multiple regression will be conducted to assess hypotheses regarding mind wandering and reading in the context of relevant language factors. The results from this project will provide novel and useful information about the process of mind wandering, particularly regarding its impacts for bilingual students, further informing the development of effective supports and interventions for such at-risk students.

This paper describes "Ditch the Dictionary," a college faculty development workshop at Johnson and Wales University (Rhode Island) that applies the theory of multiple intelligences to vocabulary development and reading instruction in the English-as-a-Second-Language classroom. It was found that the institution's international and immigrant students were anxious about vocabulary use, overused the dictionary, and felt real learning was always by rote learning, traits not found compatible with good reading practice. A classroom technique for opening a reading course is described: having students reflect on a memorable learning event, so that they may realize that individuals process information in different ways. Theories of multiple intelligences and learning styles are then reviewed briefly, and a list of internal questions used by good readers to attack a new word is offered, along with several additional techniques. (Contains 16 references, and a list of ten ways to apply multiple intelligences theory in the ESL vocabulary class is appended.) (MSE)

This paper describes "Ditch the Dictionary," a college faculty development workshop at Johnson and Wales University (Rhode Island) that applies the theory of multiple intelligences to vocabulary development and reading instruction in the English-as-a-Second-Language classroom. It was found that the institution's international and immigrant students were anxious about vocabulary use, overused the dictionary, and felt real learning was always by rote learning, traits not found compatible with good reading practice. A classroom technique for opening a reading course is described: having students reflect on a memorable learning event, so that they may realize that individuals process information in different ways. Theories of multiple intelligences and learning styles are then reviewed briefly, and a list of internal questions used by good readers to attack a new word is offered, along with several additional techniques. (Contains 16 references, and a list of ten ways to apply multiple intelligences theory in the ESL vocabulary class is appended.) (MSE)

This is the third annual listing of graduate theses and dissertations in English as a Second Language (ESL). The studies cited here were completed during the academic year 1977-1978. The listing is intended to provide graduate students and others doing research in ESL and related fields with specific, comprehensive data on current graduate-level studies. Information was contributed by program directors, graduate advisers, and department chairmen from among the institutions in the United States and Canada that are known to have graduate programs in ESL. Each of the 90 entries provides the writer's name, thesis or dissertation title, degree earned, university, year degree was granted, name of thesis adviser, department or program, and writer's address. In addition, most entries include summaries of abstracts prepared by the writers. Entries are listed under the following headings: (1) Adult Education, (2) Bilingualism, (3) Contrastive Studies, (4) Culture, (5) Curriculum, (6) Grammar, (7) Literature, (8) Materials and Methods, (9) Phonology, (10) Profession, (11) Psycholinguistics, (12) Reading, (13) Research, (14) Second Dialect, (15) Second Language Learning, (16) Sociolinguistics, (17) Testing, (18) Visual Aids, and (19) Writing. (Author/AMH)

It is known through different means that the learning a second language implicates several challenges in relation to reading comprehension, the levels of difficulty are different from one student to another. I had created a Handbook of Strategies to Enhance Reading Comprehension in a Second Language, which was elaborated based on my experience as a literacy teacher in a second language, as well as from sources of information such as Professional Developments I have received, interviewing and observing colleagues, and information gathered on textbooks on reading comprehension and some research on the internet. Each of the strategies included in the Handbook of Strategies to Enhance Reading Comprehension in a Second Language has been used in a second language classroom and has been based on work created by literacy experts and researchers with a pedagogical intent; therefore, they are easy to understand and apply, with the idea of providing classroom teachers and other interested professionals with a beginners guide to follow and ideas that they can apply for the benefit of English language learners who they instruct. It would be a remarkable experience if the contribution of my handbook of strategies would reach, in addition to teachers, parents, and any other person or organization that is interested in the students of a second language effectively understanding the reading of any material in a second language, whether visual or written.

This study is aimed at identifying both prospects and problems of using Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in teaching reading comprehension in English as Second Language. To achieve this aim, a total of 25 secondary school English teachers were interviewed through the use of questionnaire. The teachers were purposively and pragmatically selected from 5 private schools and 4 public schools in the Abakaliki metropolis of Ebonyi State of Nigeriato ensure that both private and public schools were represented in the sample. The results of descriptive statistical analyses revealed that the most important prospects of using ICT in teaching reading comprehension included: the obvious improvement in vocabulary building and usage through the use of online dictionary; as well as the excitement about reading comprehension lessons often expressed by the students, which facilitated students' learning process and promotion of meaningful learning among others. However, there were problems that were very prevalent with the use of ICT in the classrooms. These were: difficulty in classroom control, distractions caused by irrelevant websites, poor maintenance, and lack of infrastructure. The findings of the study are expected to provide the teachers and policy makers with a better and more accurate picture of problems and prospects of integrating ICT in the teaching of reading comprehension in English as a Second Language classrooms.

This study examined the respective contribution of verbal working memory, which was operationalized as immediate digit and sentence recall, to bilingual children's reading fluency and comprehension in the first language (L1) and second language (L2). Fifty children from two international sites took part in this study: One group was English-Korean bilinguals in the U.S., while the other was Korean-English bilinguals in Korea. The manifestation of the prediction model varied across the learning contexts or learner groups. L1 forward and backward digit spans accounted for the significant variances in L2 reading fluency and comprehension for the English-speaking children in the U.S., whereas L1 forward digit span was more predictive of L2 reading fluency and comprehension than backward digit span and sentence recall for the Korean-speaking counterparts in Korea. The results were interpreted with respect to the orthographic depth, linguistic differences, and cognitive demands. Implications and future directions are discussed.

This teacher's guide is intended for the instruction of both French as a first language and French as a second language in an immersion setting. It provides a host of strategies for teaching reading skills in the classroom in Grades 6 through 12. The first section is designed to bring the teacher's awareness to the training procedure. It discusses the motivation to learn new strategies, preparing for their implementation, and the transfer of knowledge. The second section presents the practical aspects of the reading strategies, including preparation, implementation, and evaluation. (AS)

A Literature Review of the Use of the Term Extensive Reading in Second Language Literature Who Was the First to Use It