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The latest in India's language wars. A parliament panel backs Hindi plus regional languages to replace English at centres of higher education. Southern states say this threatens India's linguistic diversity. Supporters say English is a relic of the colonial past. "Projecting Hindi speakers alone as Indian citizens and others as second-class citizens reeks of divide-and-rule," said Tamil Nadu Chief Minister MK Stalin as the parliament's language committee reportedly said centre-run educational institutions should switch away from English to "Hindi or local language." "Don't impose another language war on us," Mr Stalin said, directing his words at Prime Minister Narendra Modi, whose party BJP, as a stated policy, favours Hindi as a link among all states.

Idahosa (pronounced ee-DOW-ssah) Ness is the founder of The Mimic Method language learning method and speaks five languages fluently - Spanish, French, Portuguese, German and Mandarin Chinese. He developed the system in 2010 while studying percussion in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and was struggling to learn Brazilian rhythms. The Mimic Method is unique in that the listener learns the new language by ear rather than by eye, and has helped thousands of individuals from around the world learn languages faster, understand more, and speak with a better accent. When we last talked to Idahosa in our 2016 Travel, Language Learning & The Mimic Method episode, we discussed how Idahosa started his location independent company and built a life for himself which combined his love of travel, language learning and entrepreurship. He has continued traveling and has visited the US, Hungary, Australia, Brazil and Portugal just in the past year! On this episode, we talk more about how know the language can add tremendous value to your travel experience, the pitfalls of traditional language learning models, and the importance of keeping language learning fun! If you enjoy the podcast, join the community on Facebook, Instagram + sign up for the monthly newsletter. This episode of the podcast is brought to you by YOU - this listener of the show! We just changed up our rewards on Patreon, and becoming a supporter of the show has never been better. Did someone say postcard from an exotic location? If you want to support the ongoing production of the show, please visit www.theworldwanderers.com/patreon/ Music Credits: www.bensound.com

This study examines foreign language acquisition in a virtual reality (VR) environment among native Finnish speakers. Specifically, it explores the impact of the visual presence of a virtual agent (avatar) on language learning, referred to here as the "social" condition. This effect is compared to a "non-social" condition, where the avatar is not visually present. In the social condition, participants learn the Arabic names of various items with assistance from an AI controlled avatar, which is visually present and interacts verbally with them during the learning phase. In contrast, the non-social condition features a similar learning environment, but participants only hear the instructions without the avatar´s visual presence. Within each condition, the participant goes through two parts: A learning part that takes place in the VR environment, where the participant learns the Arabic words in a listen and repeat task followed by a short memory test, then a post learning part taking place outside of the VR environment, where the participant performs a match/mismatch identification task on a computer screen. During the learning phase, participants will see various 3D objects in the VR environment and must actively click on them one by one to hear their Arabic names. These objects are presented in different semantically related environments. Participants are instructed to perform a listen and repeat task, where they carefully listen to each item's Arabic name, which they must repeat out loud. After this task, the participant undergoes a short memory test where they are asked to recall the Arabic names of the objects. The learning and the memory test are repeated in each environment. In the post-learning phase, foreign word learning will be evaluated both behaviorally and via recording event-related potentials (ERPs) in a match/mismatch identification task, where participants indicate with a button press whether the pairs of objects and words are congruent (match) or incongruent (mismatch). The ERP target component is the N400 response, an indicator of semantic integration. EEG data, behavioral data and automatic nervous system activity (as indicated by the heart rate variability) will be measured throughout the experiment. During the learning phase, behavioral results of the memory test are expected to show better word learning as reflected in faster and more word recalls in social condition compared to non-social condition. Electroencephalography (EEG) and heartrate variability (HRV) may also indicate condition differences, but the analyses are mostly explorative. However, it can be expected that in EEG oscillatory activity at Alpha, Beta, Gamma and Theta bands will be modulated by the experimental condition (social vs non-social), reflecting better attention to the learning materials, more engagement and enhanced memory performance in social condition. Moreover, brain functional connectivity in social vs nonsocial condition will be also explored. In the post learning phase, the hypothesis is that the N400 effect (match vs. mismatch) will be stronger in the social condition compared to the non-social condition, indicating a better learning effect. In the post learning phase behavioral evaluation, as indicated by response accuracy and reaction time will be compared between the two conditions. It is expected that reaction times will be faster and with higher accuracy in the social condition compared to the non-social condition.

Minecraft German Comprehensible Input

Project investigating whether production experience with a new language improves comprehension

In this study, we investigate the impact of language-switching costs (LSC), a well-established phenomenon, on subsequent learning outcomes. Participants will acquire knowledge of mathematical concepts related to statistical analyses across two instructional sessions. During the first session, participants will learn foundational concepts (e.g., variance, hypotheses). In the second session, they will be introduced to more advanced topics (e.g., t-tests, error types) that build directly upon the content covered in the initial session. In a third session, participants will complete a test (=final test) comprising items that assess knowledge from both the first and second sessions. To examine the effects of language-switching costs, we will employ a 2x2 design. Half of the participants will receive instruction in German during the initial session, while the other half will receive instruction in English. In the second session, participants will either continue learning in the same language as the first session or switch to the alternate language. During the final assessment, all participants will encounter test items presented equally in both languages. This design enables us to compute a within-subject switching score for each participant, in addition to evaluating overall performance.

Adults find learning new languages to be difficult. The proposed project uses a miniature language learning paradigm to explore whether learning a new language can be enhanced by speaking the language as opposed to just listening to it. Research has suggested an advantage of retrieval practice for learning; this is referred to as the “testing effect” (Rowland, 2014; Karpicke & Roediger, 2007). Recent work suggests that such benefits may extend to artificial language learning (Hopman & MacDonald, 2018). The proposed study examines whether retrieval practice enhances learning of a natural language (Turkish) relative to other methods. We introduce Turkish to naïve learners through a remote computer-assisted language learning (CALL) protocol that is delivered synchronously via Zoom where spoken dialogues are presented in structured tasks with immediate feedback. Across learning conditions, we vary the structure of the learning tasks in a between- subjects design, i.e., whether participants are required to retrieve from memory, verbally repeat, or just listen to inflected Turkish nouns and match them with pictures. Our CALL protocol resembles the miniature artificial language paradigms widely used in psycholinguistic research, but uses a natural language to increase external validity (Kempe & Brooks, 2016). That is, participants must grapple with unfamiliar phonological patterns as they learn Turkish vocabulary and grammar. Some participants may be invited back for a second CALL session (exploratory). In addition to manipulating the structure of the learning tasks, the proposed study examines how individual differences in language learning aptitude impact learning of Turkish nominal morphology (case making, number), with aptitude assessed via tests of nonverbal ability (Cattell & Cattell, 1973). Previous research (Brooks et al., 2006; DeKeyser, 2012) indicates possible aptitude by training interactions, with some language learners failing to benefit from conditions that are advantageous for others. This registration is an updated version of the following registration: https://osf.io/vucrh. Updates to the registration were made during data collection and prior to data analysis. Most of the registration remains the same except the following changes: 1. Data collection procedures, specifically recruitment methods, were updated. Recruitment was expanded to include college students outside of the subject pool but in the same university system. See Data collection procedures for more information. 2. The 'Experimenter_Instructions_for_running_virtual_study.md' was updated to include clearer steps for running the study. 3. The data exclusion and missing data sections were updated as we encountered a few instances where Pavlovia, the site where the online CALL is delivered, experienced a bug that was out of the control of the researchers. 4. The description of the coding scheme for the Exit Questionnaire was expanded in the 'Measured variables' and 'Transformations' sections. 5. Exclusion criteria was updated

Adults find learning new languages to be difficult. The proposed project uses a miniature language learning paradigm to explore whether learning a new language can be enhanced by speaking the language as opposed to just listening to it. Research has suggested an advantage of retrieval practice for learning; this is referred to as the “testing effect” (Rowland, 2014; Karpicke & Roediger, 2007). Recent work suggests that such benefits may extend to artificial language learning (Hopman & MacDonald, 2018). The proposed study examines whether retrieval practice enhances learning of a natural language (Turkish) relative to other methods. We introduce Turkish to naïve learners through a remote computer-assisted language learning (CALL) protocol that is delivered synchronously via Zoom where spoken dialogues are presented in structured tasks with immediate feedback. Across learning conditions, we vary the structure of the learning tasks in a between- subjects design, i.e., whether participants are required to retrieve from memory, verbally repeat, or just listen to inflected Turkish nouns and match them with pictures. Our CALL protocol resembles the miniature artificial language paradigms widely used in psycholinguistic research, but uses a natural language to increase external validity (Kempe & Brooks, 2016). That is, participants must grapple with unfamiliar phonological patterns as they learn Turkish vocabulary and grammar. Some participants may be invited back for a second CALL session (exploratory). In addition to manipulating the structure of the learning tasks, the proposed study examines how individual differences in language learning aptitude impact learning of Turkish nominal morphology (case making, number), with aptitude assessed via tests of nonverbal ability (Cattell & Cattell, 1973). Previous research (Brooks et al., 2006; DeKeyser, 2012) indicates possible aptitude by training interactions, with some language learners failing to benefit from conditions that are advantageous for others. This registration is an updated version of the following registration: https://osf.io/vucrh. Updates to the registration were made during data collection and prior to data analysis. Most of the registration remains the same except the following changes: 1. Data collection procedures, specifically recruitment methods, were updated. Recruitment was expanded to include college students outside of the subject pool but in the same university system. See Data collection procedures for more information. 2. The 'Experimenter_Instructions_for_running_virtual_study.md' was updated to include clearer steps for running the study. 3. The data exclusion and missing data sections were updated as we encountered a few instances where Pavlovia, the site where the online CALL is delivered, experienced a bug that was out of the control of the researchers. 4. The description of the coding scheme for the Exit Questionnaire was expanded in the 'Measured variables' and 'Transformations' sections. 5. Exclusion criteria was updated

This is a continuation of the project pre-registred in https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/WRM7H. We reproduce Experiment 1A in the previous preregistration, this time using a fully artificial language. This artificial language has one negative marker and one polarity item, roughly equivalent to English ‘at all’. As before, we investigate the meaning that learners attribute to the NPI ‘lom’ when it appears in positive contexts. We aim at replicating the overwhelming preference for logical dual interpretations of polarity items we found in Experiments 1 and 2.

Amendment to the original preregistration.

This review conducted to map existing literature evidence regarding the use of digital learning media on the development of second languages or bilingualism in children aged 6-12 years to give additional new information and formulate future primary research, especially in the fields of learning design and psycholinguistic.

The ubiquitous impacts resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic have profoundly changed the education sector, and marked research interest in online or blended learning can be witnessed. As a pervasive learning activity of paramount significance, online language learning has aroused widespread concerns. Nonetheless, few systematic reviews concerning the effectiveness of online language learning were published. With the help of CiteSpace, this study systematically investigated 103 SSCI literature of empirical studies related to online language learning effectiveness based on student achievement for the purpose of providing a better understanding of the research trends on this topic and the most effective ways to implement online language learning for the teachers and students.

The ubiquitous impacts resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic have profoundly changed the education sector, and marked research interest in online or blended learning can be witnessed. As a pervasive learning activity of paramount significance, online language learning has aroused widespread concerns. Nonetheless, few systematic reviews concerning the effectiveness of online language learning were published. With the help of CiteSpace, this study systematically investigated 103 SSCI literature of empirical studies related to online language learning effectiveness based on student achievement for the purpose of providing a better understanding of the research trends on this topic and the most effective ways to implement online language learning for the teachers and students.

This project is about predicting personality from LinkedIn profiles using machine learning and natural language processing.

English language learning (ELL) is crucial globally and takes place in formal education for many people. Interest and self-efficacy are considered critical to students’ learning experiences and academic performance across formal education. Previous research indicated that the two popular gamification elements (badges and leaderboards) have the potential to support students’ interest, self-efficacy development and academic performance. However, few prior studies were found empirically examining their effects on student interest, self-efficacy, and performance in especially ELL formal education settings. To address these gaps, this study intended to investigate how using badges and leaderboards simultaneously influenced students’ interest, self-efficacy, and academic performance in a secondary ELL course compared to non-gamification.

Unsupervised learning of linguistic structure is a difficult task. Frequently, standard techniques such as maximum-likelihood estimation yield poor results or are simply inappropriate (as when the class of models under consideration includes models of varying complexity). In this talk, I discuss how Bayesian statistical methods can be applied to the problem of unsupervised language learning to develop principled model-based systems and improve results. I first present some work on word segmentation, showing that maximum-likelihood estimation is inappropriate for this task and discussing a nonparametric Bayesian modeling solution. I then argue, using part-of-speech tagging as an example, that a Bayesian approach provides advantages even when maximum-likelihood (or maximum a posteriori) estimation is possible. I conclude by discussing some of the challenges that remain in pursuing a Bayesian approach to language learning. ©2007 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Current systems that learn to process natural language require laboriously constructed human annotated training data. Ideally, a computer would be able to acquire language like a child by being exposed to linguistic input in the context of a relevant but ambiguous perceptual environment. As a step in this direction, we will present systems that learn to sportscast simulated robot soccer games and to follow navigation instructions in virtual environments by simply observing sample human linguistic behavior in context. This work builds on our earlier work on supervised learning of semantic parsers that map natural language to a formal meaning representation. In order to apply such methods to learning from observation, we have developed methods that estimate the meaning of sentences from ambiguous perceptual context. ©2011 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Intelligent Information Access and Extraction suggest significant challenges for Natural Language analysis. Tasks of interest include semantic role labeling (determining who did what to whom, when and where), information extraction (identifying entities, relations and events), following natural language instructions, and textual entailment (determining whether one utterance is a likely consequence of another). A computational approach to these challenges often involves assigning values to sets of interdependent variables and thus frequently necessitates performing global inference that accounts for these interdependencies. This talk presents research on Constrained Conditional Models (CCMs), a framework that augments probabilistic models with declarative constraints as a way to support such decisions. We will present a framework we introduced a few years ago, formulating decision problems in NLP as Integer Linear Programming problems, but focus on new algorithms for training these global models using indirect supervision signals. Learning models for structured tasks is difficult partly since generating supervision signals is costly. We show that it is often easy to obtain a related indirect supervision signal, and discuss several options for deriving this supervision signal, including inducing it from the world's response to the model's actions. Our learning framework is “Constraints Driven” in the sense that it allows and even gains from global inference that guided by expressive declarative knowledge (encoded as constraints). Experimental results show the significant contribution of easy-to-get indirect supervision on NLP tasks such as information extraction, Transliteration and Textual Entailment. ©2011 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Top Tips for Learning a Language Check out my website: https://venusohara.org Follow me on Social Media: https://twitter.com/venusohara1111 https://www.instagram.com/venusohara/

We propose a methodology for evaluating second language acquisition in the context of massive multi-player online role-playing games (MMORPGs). Careful examination of learning opportunities present in gaming requires us to direct our attention to the characteristics of MMORPGs and how these characteristics support learning. Because role-playing games support social interaction between players, MMORPGs can serve as the catalyst for fostering students’ foreign language competency as students participate in interactive dialogue during game play. For these reasons, we believe that games embody an interesting and often underutilized learning environment for second language acquisition (SLA). Combing second language pedagogy and the benefits of MMORPGs, our goal is to create an effective learning environment for SLA. Rather than using traditional language learning software, we explore the immersive, virtual environment of Sony Online Entertainment’s EverQuest 2 as a language learning tool. After conducting a pilot study of English as second language (ESL) students, we presented the initial efforts of our research at the SIGGRAPH 2006 Educators Program: http://www.siggraph.org/s2006/main.php?f=conference&p=edu&s=40 Preliminary results suggest that intermediate and advanced ESL participants appear to increase their English vocabulary acquisition by as much as 40% after 16 hours of game play. Though all participants generated a 100% increase in chat messages within the first four weeks of playing EverQuest2, the number of chat messages and syntactical errors eventually decreased as students continued to advance game levels. These results suggest closer scrutiny of students’ interaction with both playing and non-playing characters and the types of syntactical errors found in each student’s chat logs as we prepare for the second phase of our game study. ©2006 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

None Source: https://www.twitch.tv/videos/292660444 Uploader: gamecatt

Hossfeld's new practical method for learning the Russian language

This practicum determined that students with language learning disabilities were not experiencing success in the regular classroom, and skills acquired in a pull-out program were not generalizing to the regular classroom. The practicum piloted a first-grade inclusion program which called for the resource room teacher and speech language pathologist to co-teach with the classroom teacher for 8 hours weekly. The three educators cooperatively modified curriculum for all language levels and co-taught lessons for the whole class along with daily small group cooperative learning lessons with teachers as facilitators. Data indicated that the number of referrals for speech and language services dropped somewhat, and staff felt that students had done better in the regular classroom than they would have in a pull-out program. Achievement increased along with social and pragmatic skills though not all students met the practicum objectives. Because learning experiences were connected, there was no problem with skills taught in the resource room generalizing to the classroom. The study concludes that implementation of such a co-teaching arrangement requires staff who are compatible, initial training, ample planning time, and a low teacher/student ratio. Copies of questionnaires used to assess staff attitudes toward the program are provided in appendixes. (Contains 19 references.) (JDD)

Set in the context of Hong Kong's school curriculum reform initiative, which centers on development and implementation of task-based instruction, a study examined: (1) what teachers of English as a Second Language understand about language learning and what decisions they make when preparing a classroom task; (2) to what extent elementary and secondary teachers differ in their interpretations of tasks; and (3) the factors influencing those interpretations. A total of 114 (43 secondary, 71 primary) teachers of English attending an in-service teacher education program on the new curriculum were surveyed and interviewed concerning the lesson planning process. Results suggest that the teachers had a tacit understanding of how to develop and adapt a task description for classroom instructional use. Teachers indicated a need for more preparation in classroom management techniques and in offering language support to students. Three tables present response categories for post-questions, criteria for task interpretation, and criteria for holistic interpretations. Contains 22 references, an appendix containing the outline for an activity on lesson planning, and a table for inter-rater reliability. (MSE)

The design and development of GRACILE, a collaborative learning environment in the domain of Japanese language patterns and expressions, is described. The environment is designed to allow learning goals communication, learning activities negotiation, and collaboration between learners. From a group of student models, a potential development level is represented for each learner, representing the knowledge the learner can reach with the assistance of more experienced peers or a teacher. The student model represents the learner's actual development level, by a set of patterns and expressions which appear in correct sentences constructed by the learner, without any help from the system or other colleagues. GRACILE cooperates with each learner, generating the respective student's knowledge frontier, which is defined with respect to the knowledge of other learners and the more complex language patterns which the system believes have already been internalized by the student. The environment provides the learners with a toolbox for dialogue construction, including dictionaries. A set of dialogue agents, whose capabilities are the construction and appropriate use of language patterns and expressions in different dialogue situations, may also be requested for help. During sentence construction, learners can be assisted by other learners. The "Learners Performance Communication" module allows the student free access to open models which represent the group members' actual development level, thereby allowing the learner to locate their own level in relation with the others', and encouraging the learner to realize who can help him/her or who can be helped. It is believed that GRACILE will help Japanese language students develop reading and writing skills faster, allowing them to become more productive at communicating. (Contains 16 references.) (MAS)

This study examined how, prospective teachers, cooperating teachers, and university supervising instructors saw their roles as learners and teachers and what these individuals learned about learning and teaching English language arts in the context of a partnership arrangement between the University of Alberta's (Canada) Faculty of Education and McKernan Elementary-Junior High school, an urban, multicultural public school. The research method involved participation and observation during campus-based class time and during work with teachers and students at McKernan School and observations and interviews during a subsequent practicum. Data sources included field notes and journal, student and teacher journals, written documents, audiotaped interviews, writing conferences with education students, and observation and interviews with three education students in their practicum schools. Participants were 23 education students, 4 cooperating teachers, a school principal and assistant principal, and a university instructor. Overall, the research suggested that the partnership helped beginning and experienced teachers learn about adolescents, learning, and teaching. Experienced teachers at both levels had the opportunity to look in new ways at practices, theories, and students. By uniting the visions afforded by the university with the visions afforded by the rich immediate context of the school, education students and teachers gained richer, more balanced perspectives than either setting in isolation could offer. (Contains 21 references.) (JB)

This monograph examines recent trends in the education of students from non-English-language backgrounds and cultures who may have learning difficulties or possible disabilities. Chapter 1 provides an overview of policy issues with respect to the education of students learning English as a new language and the interface between regular education, special education, and English-as-a-Second-Language (ESL)/bilingual programs. Chapters 2 and 3 describe procedures followed at Newport Elementary School in its efforts to enhance the learning opportunities of non-English-background students and to incorporate them into mainstream instruction. Chapters 4 and 5 present case studies of two such students experiencing learning difficulties and failing to progress in their current programs. Both studies illustrate how special attention and collaborative problem-solving are important for ensuring that all students are provided appropriate instruction. The final chapter focuses on assessment and instructional planning and implementation. Contains 172 references. (MSE)

This Digest discusses School-to-Work (STW) programs, which are aimed at developing an integrated secondary school curriculum that facilitates students' transition from school to the workplace. It addresses school-based learning in STW programs, especially the practices that language arts teachers can use in classrooms to meet STW goals. The Digest then describes three categories of K-12 language arts learning approaches and exemplary practices: (1) practices that support interdisciplinary learning, or learning across the curriculum; (2) student-centered career exploration projects; and (3) entrepreneurial school projects. The Digest concludes that educators who are responsible for developing school curricula and learning outcomes need to remain abreast of educational reforms that will meet the demands of a more dynamic future workforce. (RS)

Whole language reading education is a constructivist view of learning with particular emphasis on the development of literacy. Constructivism asserts that human beings develop concepts through their own intellectual interactions and actions with the world. In whole language reading classrooms acceptance of learners means that the whole language reading teachers develop the classroom environment and the curriculum for and with the students, to meet their needs and excite them in learning about what interests them, as well as covering curriculum guidelines. The instruction received by students with learning disabilities (LD) often takes place in the resource room. Little attention is paid to the individual needs of the students with learning disabilities despite the legal requirement to do so. This paper, a literature review, addresses two areas pertaining to the development of reading ability. First, the paper investigates the development of reading ability in whole language classrooms. Then, it explores the development of reading ability in students with learning disabilities, including motivating an LD middle school student to read. It also discusses middle school student needs and preferences in reading. Contains 48 references. (NKA)

From a social-interactionist's view of language learning, "reflective conversation" via CMC, particularly through the asynchronous mode, has been advocated (Lamy & Goodfellow, 1999). It emphasizes learning through reflection on experience and through the exchange of thoughts with others. Guided by this pedagogical model, asynchronous discussion was implemented in an EFL content-based course taught twice in 2003 and 2004 that integrated learners' language learning experience with language learning theories. The study investigated the effectiveness of learning both content and language in this experience-based language learning course through asynchronous discussion and also examined the reflectiveness and interactivity of the participants' online exchanges. The results showed that most of the participants held a highly positive view on this CMC learning activity. Moreover, their reflectiveness in asynchronous discussions was found to be affected more by peer interaction than by the instructor's participation. Of particular interest is that the differences found among discussion groups revealed that the higher participation level the students had, the more positive view they held. This can be well supported by Wenger's social theory of learning emphasizing the importance of active participation.

This study investigated the influence of e-mail on English language learning among college freshmen enrolled in a remedial English class. English was considered the first or second foreign language for all participants. Students were divided into two groups. One group was allowed face to face communication in class and during office hours with the educator, while the other was allowed face to face communication in class and e-mail communication outside of class with the educator. The researcher analyzed frequency and content of communication, address style, long-term communication, and communication dynamics. By using e-mail, students became empowered learners who were active, responsible, and motivated to communicate to enhance their language learning. As active learners, they could create and edit a message, then send it at their own pace. They expected to receive feedback but were not anxious because it took place in a nonthreatening, nonjudgemental environment. Peer pressure and modeling were minimal in the e-mail condition. The non-e-mail group felt more peer pressure and lack of privacy, and they tended to be more passive learners. The presence of others (in the classroom or the educators office) influenced students perceptions, evaluation, and behavior. Tables and figures are appended. (Contains 44 references.) (SM)

Vague language is widely used in both spoken and written English and it is also a very important language variable. The process of language use is active, during which speakers and hearers constantly have to make choices out of variables. This paper mainly studies the influences of vagueness in language on second language learning and attaches importance to the flexible selections of vague language in the target language.

This report analyzes the moment-by-moment construction of interaction by language minority children in a cooperative learning activity. The interaction occurred among students in a Spanish-English bilingual 3rd grade classroom as part of a cooperative learning curriculum known as Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC), which was especially adapted for use in bilingual classrooms by language minority students. The analysis of interaction reveals that under supportive social circumstances, children are very active in probing and questioning their own knowledge and they rely on their shared expertise to attain instructional goals and supplemental goals that are related to their own expertise and concerns. The report supports the importance of promoting learning as a constructive process wherein students actively develop new knowledge through manipulation and questioning of their existing knowledge. (Author)

This paper describes the development and implementation of an intensive summer course in English as a Second Language (ESL) designed for children aged 4-5. Planning included development of a curriculum and instructional materials based on theory and practice in the teaching of young children, English language learning and instruction, and curriculum development. The teacher had native-like English skills and limited conversational ability in the children's first language (Japanese). A Japanese-speaking aide was available for emergency interpretation. No effort was made to foster the children's first language or culture in the course. A theme-based curriculum with topics of interest to young children was devised. It was implemented in a six-week half-day course at an Okinawa (Japan) private school. Curriculum and classroom components common in preschool education were also used here, including learning centers, pre-literacy exposure to English, and work tasks to reinforce past content. Teacher journals, student pre- and post-course evaluations, and students' expressive language samples were used to analyze course effectiveness. Results indicate that the short-term immersion course is a viable and effective method of teaching English to young children. Recommendations for classroom practice and for instructional materials development are also made. (MSE)

This paper argues that while there are factors common to second language learning in both monolingual and multilingual contexts, there are also predictable differences in degree arising from a one-many or many-one language learning situation, common to both contexts, as opposed to a many-many language learning situation typical of the multilingual context. In the context of current language learning and teaching practices in Nigeria, issues in language policy (especially with regard to language choice at different levels of education), language attitudes, curriculum design and content, instructional materials, and language teacher role and training are examined and attention is drawn to the problems arising from these factors in relation to some current approaches to language learning and teaching. Contains 35 references. (MSE)

These 31 papers illustrate and reflect on the application of autobiographical/life history techniques in research and teaching in higher and adult education institutions in the United Kingdom and from Western and Eastern Europe. The papers are: "Writing and Rewriting Writer Identity" (Aitchison et al.); "In Search of the Meaning of Education" (Antikainen et al.); "Life History in Research Careers" (Blaxter et al.); "Automathsbiographies" (Briggs); "To Become a Researcher" (Bron); "Life History and Personal Values in the Selection and Training of Professionals" (Clifford); "Maths Life Histories" (Cobden, Thumpston); "Using Life Histories on a 'Ways into Work' Course" (Costley, Thompson); "From Chambermaids to Graduates" (Daggett); "Adult Education and Life History" (Davis);"Hidden Histories" (Delfanne); "Biographical Research in Adult Education" (Egger); "New Methods for Life Course Analysis of Students' Lives" (Farnes); "Starting a Personal Profile" (Griffiths); "Histories and Horoscopes" (Hamilton); "Cleaners Tell Their Life Stories" (Harnsten); "An Eighteenth-Century Poet Reveals Himself as an Educator" (Jones); "Narratives and Identity in Higher Education" (Lea); "Secret Worlds of the Way We Talk" (Lewis); "'The Swift Course of My Life'" (Mace); "Hearing Voices, Changing Lives" (Mann); "Life History and Creative Writing" (Michelson); "'Autobiography Unit': A Case Study" (Monaghan); "Life History, Disability, and Special Education" (Potts); "Crossing Cultural Divides" (Preece); "Using Lifelines" (Pryor et al.); "Life History and Motivation for Adult Education" (Schrader-Naef); "Quilting a Life History" (Sellers); "Adult Learning in a Time of Transition" (Shelley); "Accrediting Selves?" (Stuart); "The Importance of Identity and Difference in Relation to the Life Histories of Learners" (Sukhnandan); "Life Histories in a Historical Context" (Thapar); "Women, Education, and Class" (Thomas); "How Did I Get Here? An Account of Routes and Decisions Affecting Entry into and Experiences of Higher Education" (Thombs et al.); "Exploring Educational Life Histories" (Thomson); "Whose Story, Whose Terms? Some Problems of Reflectivity in Life History Research" (West); and "The Influence of Some Life Experiences on the Perceived Value of Action Learning Sets in the Development of Personal and Managerial Skills in a Higher Education Environment" (Williams). (YLB)

The annual report on achievement testing in Alberta (Canada) includes test results for third-grade students in language learning (for the regular English program), sixth-grade students in social studies, and ninth-grade students in science. Results are regarded in terms of curriculum standards, assessment standards, and achievement standards. School-level results for the 102,702 students who took the tests (about 84% of total students) suggest declining performance across grades 3, 6, and 9. In fact, a satisfactory percentage of ninth graders met the achievement standard in only two of three schools. The assessments this year included performance tasks at each grade level. Grade 3 results indicate that fewer students meet the provincial standards on the performance test than on the written component of the achievement test. Seventeen figures and 43 tables present test results for the 3 grades. Five appendixes discuss standards, interpretation of results, and details of test construction, and list questions parents frequently ask. A questionnaire about the report is included for reader feedback. (SLD)

This study investigates if negotiation can affect syntacticization in the learning of second language (L2) syntax. Evidence from a number of studies has suggested that linguistic modification occurs during negotiation, but no research has examined if such modifications assist the learning of syntax in a second language. This study examined to what extent these linguistic modifications affect syntacticization, to what extent do different negotiation moves affect syntacticization, and to what extent does negotiation affect syntacticization over time. Data was collected between November 1993 and June 1994, and experimental/control treatments were contained within 10 sessions as 19 L2 learners (aged 18-47 years) participated in communication tasks with native speakers through a computerized writing conference. Subjects native language backgrounds were Korean and Japanese; their Michigan Placement Test scores ranged from 18-62. Results indicate that negotiation could stimulate syntacticization and sustain the process over time. However, comparisons with one control group showed that syntacticization was independent of the type of treatment given. (Contains 61 references.) (Author/NAV)

This paper presents APPRAISALWeb, a 2-year Research & Development project jointly funded by the "Universidad Politecnica de Valencia" and the regional government of Valencia (Spain), and developed by the CAMILLE Research Group at that university. In general terms, the project aims to suggest a comprehensive methodology for the pedagogical analysis of the Web as an environment for language learning. More specifically, a major objective of the project is to develop an online Interactive platform that serves as a tool to analyze, classify and evaluate Web-based resources for language learning from a pedagogical point of view. As CALL (Computer Assisted Language Learning) research literature suggests, it is necessary to conduct a thorough pedagogical analysis of the Web and its CALL resources if we are to take full advantage of its many possibilities. Thus, the project meets two fundamental needs that have been extensively expressed in the area of CALL: the need for theoretical models and methodologies and the necessity of specific tools for analysing and searching for available Web-based CALL resources. First, the context of the project will be presented. Then the methodology behind APPRAISALWeb will be discussed. Finally, conclusions will be drawn from work in progress during the first stage of the project. (Contains 4 footnotes.)

A study investigated factors in Chinese language maintenance among balanced and pseudo-bilinguals who are second-generation Chinese-Americans. Subjects were 12 fifth-grade students in a Chinese-language school; half were balanced bilinguals (proficient in both languages) and half were pseudo-bilinguals (those in whom skills are more developed in one language than in the other). The children and their parents were administered a survey and interviewed. Analysis of results suggests parents have very strong differences in their reason for wanting to educate their children in two languages. Parents of balanced bilinguals tended to provide many more varieties of language input, and at some point in time, immerse their children in Chinese-speaking countries. Balanced bilingual children tend to believe in (1) putting more effort into learning two languages and (2) the fun of being bilingual. Findings may assist educators and immigrant families in increasing understanding and practices for raising children to be balanced bilingual. (MSE)

The term "content and language integrated learning" is suggested as an umbrella term for a general pedagogical approach that includes a number of methods of teaching and learning non-language subjects through a second or foreign language. Usage of other, related terms is discussed, and distinctions are made between them. These include teaching content through a foreign language; content-based second language instruction; language enhanced/enriched content instruction; bilingual education; mainstream bilingual education; plurilingual education; and immersion. It is suggested that none of these are equivalent terms, and that different locales may have very different ways of realizing content and language integration, confirming the need for a broad term to encompass a variety of educational approaches. (Contains 18 references.) (MSE)

The collection of articles on second language teaching and learning includes: "Cross-Cultural Discourse Pragmatics: Speaking about Hearsay in English and Japanese" (Nobuko Trent); "An Investigation of Student Opinions and Educational Experiences in Spanish for the Heritage Speakers at Arizona State University and the University of Arizona" (Theresa Reber, Kimberly Geeslin); "Authentic Foreign Language Testing in a Brazilian University Entrance Exam" (Rosana M. F. Cardoso); "Changing Teacher Roles in the Foreign Language Classroom" (Francis Johnson, Marion Delarche, Nicholas Marshall, Adrian Wurr, Jeffery Edwards); "Neurolinguistic Applications to SLA Classroom Instruction: A Review of the Issues with a Focus on Danesi's Bimodality" (E. G. Kim-Rivera); and "A Test for Learning Style Differences for the U.S. Border Population" (Armand Picou, Rebecca Gatlin-Watts, James Packer). A book review is also included. (David Coberly) Individual papers contain references.) (MSE)

EVEN MORE THAN A RATIONAL ANIMAL, MAN IS A SYMBOLIZING ANIMAL, CREATING HIS OWN CHANGING REPRESENTATIONS OF REALITY. INSTRUMENTAL TO THIS PROCESS IS LANGUAGE, FOR IT PROVIDES THE BEST MEANS FOR STRUCTURING BOTH PAST AND FUTURE EXPERIENCE. THE VERBALIZATION OF BOTH PERSONAL AND VICARIOUS EXPERIENCE MAKES US REEVALUATE AND RESTRUCTURE OUR REPRESENTATIONS OF REALITY. IF WE ARE TO EXPAND THE CHILD'S ABILITY TO DEVELOP COMPLEX AND EFFECTIVE REPRESENTATIONS OF REALITY, WE MUST, THEN, ENCOURAGE HIM MORE NOT ONLY TO WRITE EXPRESSIVELY, POETICALLY, AND LITERALLY, BUT ALSO TO TALK AND VERBALIZE IN THE CLASSROOM. THE VERY EXPERIENCE OF VERBALIZATION, COMBINED WITH ACTIVITY, IS A LEARNING EXPERIENCE FOR THE CHILD, AND A WAY OF GAINING CONTROL OVER A LARGER AND LARGER FRAME OF REFERENCE AND OF DEVELOPING HIS POTENTIAL FOR AN EXPANSIVE, PERCEPTIVE, AND INTELLIGENT LIFE. (THIS ADDRESS WAS DELIVERED AT THE SECOND NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE U.S. OFFICE OF EDUCATION TRI-UNIVERSITY PROJECT IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION, FEBRUARY 1-3, 1968, NEW ORLEANS, LA. IT IS FOLLOWED BY A DETAILED CRITIQUE BY WILLIAM IVERSON OF THE STANFORD SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, AND COMMENTS OF DISCUSSION-GROUP LEADERS.) (DL)

THE PROCESSES OF EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMING OF A FOREIGN LANGUAGE ARE EXAMINED ACCORDING TO THE PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT CONDITIONING, WHICH IS THE BASIS OF PROGRAMING TECHNIQUES. DISCUSSION OF FORMAL REPERTOIRES COVERS THE USE OF SUCH CONDITIONING METHODS AS DISCRIMINATION LEARNING AND TRANSFER, STIMULUS GENERALIZATION, RESPONSE GENERALIZATION, AND ECHOIC BEHAVIOR TO TEACH STUDENTS TO IMITATE, TRANSCRIBE, READ, AND TAKE DICTATION IN THE TARGET LANGUAGE. THEMATIC REPERTOIRES ARE DISCUSSED IN TERMS OF INTRAVERBAL RESPONSES, TACTS, AND MANDS. CHARTS ARE FOUND THROUGHOUT THE ARTICLE FOR CLARIFICATION OF MATERIAL. ALSO INCLUDED ARE A SUMMARY TABLE OF AVAILABLE LANGUAGE PROGRAMS AND A SIX-PAGE LIST OF REFERENCES. THIS ARTICLE APPEARED IN THE "INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF APPLIED LINGUISTICS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING," VOLUME 2, NUMBER 4, NOVEMBER 1964, PAGES 249-301. (AF)

The use of the "traditional passive" form of the Japanese verb indicates to a native speaker that the subject of the verb was involuntarily subjected to something unpleasant. When combined with the causative form (passive causative), it is felt that the subject of the sentence was "caused to" take an action and is therefore not responsible for the act nor its outcome. These meanings must be expressed in English by adding whole clauses or phrases. It was hypothesized that the availability of these constructions in Japanese would cause native speakers to interpret interpersonal events by using these passive verb forms while speakers of English would not. In a translation study, the original and the translated versions of 20 Japanese and 21 English short stories were compared. It was found that the English-speaking translators tended to disregard the connotative meaning of the traditional passive while Japanese translators tended to read such meanings into the English original. A perception study was based on cartoons of interpersonal conflict situations to test whether Japanese subjects would tend to attribute responsibility for the negative outcome to others rather than themselves. In this test the overall difference between Japanese and Americans was significant at the .001 level in the predicted direction. In related tests, however, Americans who had studied Japanese used the traditional passive about as much as did native speakers. (JK)

The purpose of this document is to help teachers stimulate children and provide successful learning experiences in order to develop positive self-concepts. Part I contains lists of suggestions of activities for unsupervised work at the following centers: (1) language, (2) chalk, (3) math, (4) measuring, (5) music, (6) games, toys, and puzzles, (7) library, (8) painting, (9) sewing, (10) cutting and pasting and clay, and (11) science. Part II contains summer learning activities for second and third graders concerning reading, writing, math, science, social studies, topics to talk about, and things to make and do. (DO)

The objectives of this study were (1) to analyze the linguistic structures and the linguistic deviations used by children in their written sentences, and (2) to compare the structures and deviations with the quality of the writing, as judged by three competent raters. Eighty fourth-grade and 80 sixth-grade children (8% black) from working-class families, showing a mean IQ of 106 with a standard deviation of 12, were given a picture as a stimulus and asked to write a composition based on it. Types of linguistic structures and deviations were then tabulated. The discourse samples were grouped into three categories--high, medium, and low--and then compared on each of 63 measures. Themes rated high were longer than average while low themes were shorter and showed little use of such structures as subordinate clauses, modals and adverbs. Grade and sex differences were apparent in the measures, with females producing more discourse than males and sixth graders writing longer T-units than fourth graders. Only 24 categories of syntactic deviations appeared and the lexical deviations also seemed to fall into a few general groups. It was concluded that such groupings present the possibility of a rational approach to teaching the standard syntax and spelling. (Further implications of the study, tables of research findings, and a list of references are given.) (Author/MF)

In this monograph, the language and pedagogical concepts embodied in the Tucson Early Education Model are used to develop a systematized method of natural language learning. It is hypothesized that young children in school continually resystematize their language, and that conscious and systematic modeling by the teacher should accelerate this natural language learning. Characteristics of this natural language learning method are: (1) conscious modeling, (2) corrective feedback by the adult, (3) elaboration in modeling, (4) expansion in modeling, (5) extension of knowledge, (6) provision for the child to practice talking, (7) consistent response by an adult in a program of discriminating reinforcement, (8) structuring of the environment so that there is a structural demand for specific modes of thought and particular language forms related to such thought, and (9) verbal expression by an adult of a variety and a range of thought processes. Such an approach demands that the teacher, in order to be a conscious modeler, must think about thinking, think about talking, talk about thinking, and talk about talking. The eventual goal of language modeling is the mutual stimulation of the child's own thinking and talking. The monograph includes charts focusing on the language-intellectual relationship in classroom interaction, a tentative hierarchy of mental activity for hueristic purposes, and a chapter dealing with more sophisticated aspects of the nature of language in the context of natural language learning. (CS)

The three basic language learning models are the rote-memory model (prescriptive), the abilities model (behavioristic), and the critical age model. If this last model, a deterministic one based on observable facts about the human condition, becomes as popular in American schools as it is in British schools, language will become an important aspect of every subject area. Both a biological explanation of language learning and a cognitive explanation of language development are crucial in understanding the critical age model. Once it is recognized that the critical age model is limited by the learner's own biological and psychological development, a different approach to teaching the mother language and its uses may be realized. Since many questions concerning this model remain to be answered, neither the rote-memory model nor the abilities model should be discarded. (JM)

Teachers, both mainstream and English as a New Language (ENL), are cognizant of the many languages and learning ability levels of ELLs. They struggle to address the challenges presented by this population of students. Districts with large or small ELL populations face similar challenges: how can mainstream content be made comprehensible to ELLs to develop core content concepts; language skills; and empower students to learn the tools of technology? In this case analysis, Shideler's approach had been to use data to create intentional curriculum. The intentional approach had teachers analyze data, identify the specific performance indicators (PI) proven to be difficult, and isolate the linguistic demands to design a project-based learning (PBL) unit that exemplified four strands (PBL be based on mainstream content area curriculum; focus on the academic skills required for the identified PI; focus on the language development needed; and it integrates technology to enhance learning). Shideler concludes that the experiences with the ELL teachers proved that they can develop successful, intentional syllabi, and the result was that the ELL student performance levels had repeatedly shown to significantly increase as a result of these strategic learning experiences.