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A deductive teaching method which presents expository information first followed by problem solving has been traditionally seen as a positive approach to learners. Furthermore, when general information about the topic is explained first as part of direct instruction, learners are able to efficiently comprehend concepts after being exposed to a relatively few number of examples following the direct instruction (Kirschner, Sweller, Clark, Kirschner, & Clark, 2010). Explicit direct instruction before problem solving appears to help mitigate intrinsic load issues as well, as providing such instruction before problem solving has been shown to help learners process information containing a high number of interacting elements (Chen, Mitrovic, & Mathews, 2019; Paas, Tuovinen, Tabbers, & Van Gerven, 2003). Furthermore, the background information provided in direct instruction helps reduce extraneous processing during problem solving by avoiding trial-by-error techniques that may otherwise be used (Kalyuga & Singh, 2016). The success of inductive expository teaching often depends on whether the initial problem solving stage is supported or not. When learners are left on their own to explore a variety of acceptable solutions with no specific goal stated, they may engage in productive failure, which allows them to learn from their failures and activate prior knowledge which may reduce cognitive load. On the other hand, when problem solving is truly unsupported, learners are left on their own to solve problems with only one acceptable answer to be determined through means-end analysis. In such situations, problem solving will lead to unproductive levels of cognitive load, as learners use cognitive resources to process information irrelevant to the goal state, and are left with no other alternative than to start over and attempt another way to solve the problem, continuing the process until the problem is correctly solved (Kirschner, et al., 2018; Paas & Kirschner, 2012). One common method of inductive problem solving involves the use of worked examples as part of problem solving before the presentation of direct instruction. The use of worked examples alongside problem solving reduces element interactivity when solution steps of examples are revealed in isolated segments, allowing learners to more efficiently process information (Paas, et al., 2003).This provides a type of built-in support during problem solving that aids the processing of subsequent information in the direct instruction phase (van Merriënboer & Krammer, 1987). It has been found that compared to unsupported problem solving, worked-examples built into problem solving has led to higher learning gains.

It has long been shown that the presence of others can change individual behaviour. For example, social facilitation is when behaviour changes with the mere presence of another (Cottrell et al., 1968). This change in behaviour can lead to an increase in performance for well-learned tasks but lower performance when there is a need to learn a new skill. Literature investigating audience effects also highlights that individual behaviour changes in the presence of another. An audience effect is how behaviour changes when being observed, which differs from social facilitation, as audience effects are only present when someone is aware they are being directly observed rather than the mere presence of another. However, the impact of this effect can, again, change depending on the type of task. For example, research has found that when the task is ‘hard’, audience effects may reduce performance, however, audience effects may improve performance on ‘easy’ tasks (Bond & Titus, 1983). This means that when people complete tasks that they find more challenging they may exhibit lower scores when being observed compared to unobserved and the opposite is true when completing tasks they find less challenging. Whilst these findings have been widely replicated, types of problems that increase or decrease audience effects and the impact of individual differences remain under studied. One area where having another person present may be beneficial would be when completing ill-structured tasks. Ill-structured problems are defined as a problem with one or more aspect that is not defined or described, which leads to some ambiguity about the rules or the process of solving this problem. Therefore the presence of the another may serve a functional purpose during this type of problem solving as it may offer an opportunity to obtain additional information beyond what is defined in the description (Ge & Land, 2006) When completing ill-structured problems gaining additional information may help people clarify the necessary information needed to complete the problem more effectively. For example, Sweller (1988) argue that the cognitive load that is experienced when completing complex problem-solving tasks may be reduced if there is an opportunity to reduce this load, which may be facilitated by questioning during the task to obtain additional information. Therefore, the opportunity for reducing cognitive load, by asking questions, during ill-structured problem solving may facilitate higher success rates. Individual differences also play a key role in audience effects, as audience effects have been shown to be reduced for autistic people. For example, Chevallier et al. (2012) asked neurotypical and autistic children aged 12-15 to rank drawings on how much they liked the picture. They found that neurotypical children would give higher ratings if they believed that the person who drew the picture was listening, however those with autism did not engage in this type of flattery and ratings were similar across conditions. In further support of this, Chevallier et al., (2012) administered theory of mind tasks in social (human experimenter present) and non-social settings (online) and found that whilst neurotypical children exhibited an increase in performance in the social setting, autistic children performed similarly in both conditions. These findings may indicate that autistic people do not experience the same benefits from an audience as neurotypical children. However, this effect has currently been explored in the domain of impression management and theory of mind and remains understudied in practical problem-solving tasks. A further individual difference that may impact the effect of a watching audience is social anxiety. Social anxiety is an intense fear of social situations which can lead to avoiding social situations (Morrison & Heimburg, 2013). Previous research has highlighted that audience effects appear to be increased in those with social anxiety, with participants who exhibit high social anxiety scores experiencing a reduction in performance when being watched (Hutchinson & Cotton, 1973). 30% of people with autism also have social anxiety (Simonoff et al., 2008) and we are not aware of any research to date that has explored audience effects in those with autism and social anxiety. Therefore, due to the differing impact of a watching audience on those with autism and those with high social anxiety, levels of social anxiety are important variables to consider when exploring the influence of audience effects on different types of problems for autistic and neurotypical people.

It has long been shown that the presence of others can change individual behaviour. For example, social facilitation is when behaviour changes with the mere presence of another (Cottrell et al., 1968). This change in behaviour can lead to an increase in performance for well-learned tasks but lower performance when there is a need to learn a new skill. Literature investigating audience effects also highlights that individual behaviour changes in the presence of another. An audience effect is how behaviour changes when being observed, which differs from social facilitation, as audience effects are only present when someone is aware they are being directly observed rather than the mere presence of another. However, the impact of this effect can, again, change depending on the type of task. For example, research has found that when the task is ‘hard’, audience effects may reduce performance, however, audience effects may improve performance on ‘easy’ tasks (Bond & Titus, 1983). This means that when people complete tasks that they find more challenging they may exhibit lower scores when being observed compared to unobserved and the opposite is true when completing tasks they find less challenging. Whilst these findings have been widely replicated, types of problems that increase or decrease audience effects and the impact of individual differences remain under studied. One area where having another person present may be beneficial would be when completing ill-structured tasks. Ill-structured problems are defined as a problem with one or more aspect that is not defined or described, which leads to some ambiguity about the rules or the process of solving this problem. Therefore the presence of the another may serve a functional purpose during this type of problem solving as it may offer an opportunity to obtain additional information beyond what is defined in the description (Ge & Land, 2006) When completing ill-structured problems gaining additional information may help people clarify the necessary information needed to complete the problem more effectively. For example, Sweller (1988) argue that the cognitive load that is experienced when completing complex problem-solving tasks may be reduced if there is an opportunity to reduce this load, which may be facilitated by questioning during the task to obtain additional information. Therefore, the opportunity for reducing cognitive load, by asking questions, during ill-structured problem solving may facilitate higher success rates. Individual differences also play a key role in audience effects, as audience effects have been shown to be reduced for autistic people. For example, Chevallier et al. (2012) asked neurotypical and autistic children aged 12-15 to rank drawings on how much they liked the picture. They found that neurotypical children would give higher ratings if they believed that the person who drew the picture was listening, however those with autism did not engage in this type of flattery and ratings were similar across conditions. In further support of this, Chevallier et al., (2012) administered theory of mind tasks in social (human experimenter present) and non-social settings (online) and found that whilst neurotypical children exhibited an increase in performance in the social setting, autistic children performed similarly in both conditions. These findings may indicate that autistic people do not experience the same benefits from an audience as neurotypical children. However, this effect has currently been explored in the domain of impression management and theory of mind and remains understudied in practical problem-solving tasks. A further individual difference that may impact the effect of a watching audience is social anxiety. Social anxiety is an intense fear of social situations which can lead to avoiding social situations (Morrison & Heimburg, 2013). Previous research has highlighted that audience effects appear to be increased in those with social anxiety, with participants who exhibit high social anxiety scores experiencing a reduction in performance when being watched (Hutchinson & Cotton, 1973). 30% of people with autism also have social anxiety (Simonoff et al., 2008) and we are not aware of any research to date that has explored audience effects in those with autism and social anxiety. Therefore, due to the differing impact of a watching audience on those with autism and those with high social anxiety, levels of social anxiety are important variables to consider when exploring the influence of audience effects on different types of problems for autistic and neurotypical people.

It has long been shown that the presence of others can change individual behaviour. For example, social facilitation is when behaviour changes with the mere presence of another (Cottrell et al., 1968). This change in behaviour can lead to an increase in performance for well-learned tasks but lower performance when there is a need to learn a new skill. Literature investigating audience effects also highlights that individual behaviour changes in the presence of another. An audience effect is how behaviour changes when being observed, which differs from social facilitation, as audience effects are only present when someone is aware they are being directly observed rather than the mere presence of another. However, the impact of this effect can, again, change depending on the type of task. For example, research has found that when the task is ‘hard’, audience effects may reduce performance, however, audience effects may improve performance on ‘easy’ tasks (Bond & Titus, 1983). This means that when people complete tasks that they find more challenging they may exhibit lower scores when being observed compared to unobserved and the opposite is true when completing tasks they find less challenging. Whilst these findings have been widely replicated, types of problems that increase or decrease audience effects and the impact of individual differences remain under studied. One area where having another person present may be beneficial would be when completing ill-structured tasks. Ill-structured problems are defined as a problem with one or more aspect that is not defined or described, which leads to some ambiguity about the rules or the process of solving this problem. Therefore the presence of the another may serve a functional purpose during this type of problem solving as it may offer an opportunity to obtain additional information beyond what is defined in the description (Ge & Land, 2006) When completing ill-structured problems gaining additional information may help people clarify the necessary information needed to complete the problem more effectively. For example, Sweller (1988) argue that the cognitive load that is experienced when completing complex problem-solving tasks may be reduced if there is an opportunity to reduce this load, which may be facilitated by questioning during the task to obtain additional information. Therefore, the opportunity for reducing cognitive load, by asking questions, during ill-structured problem solving may facilitate higher success rates. Individual differences also play a key role in audience effects, as audience effects have been shown to be reduced for autistic people. For example, Chevallier et al. (2012) asked neurotypical and autistic children aged 12-15 to rank drawings on how much they liked the picture. They found that neurotypical children would give higher ratings if they believed that the person who drew the picture was listening, however those with autism did not engage in this type of flattery and ratings were similar across conditions. In further support of this, Chevallier et al., (2012) administered theory of mind tasks in social (human experimenter present) and non-social settings (online) and found that whilst neurotypical children exhibited an increase in performance in the social setting, autistic children performed similarly in both conditions. These findings may indicate that autistic people do not experience the same benefits from an audience as neurotypical children. However, this effect has currently been explored in the domain of impression management and theory of mind and remains understudied in practical problem-solving tasks. A further individual difference that may impact the effect of a watching audience is social anxiety. Social anxiety is an intense fear of social situations which can lead to avoiding social situations (Morrison & Heimburg, 2013). Previous research has highlighted that audience effects appear to be increased in those with social anxiety, with participants who exhibit high social anxiety scores experiencing a reduction in performance when being watched (Hutchinson & Cotton, 1973). 30% of people with autism also have social anxiety (Simonoff et al., 2008) and we are not aware of any research to date that has explored audience effects in those with autism and social anxiety. Therefore, due to the differing impact of a watching audience on those with autism and those with high social anxiety, levels of social anxiety are important variables to consider when exploring the influence of audience effects on different types of problems for autistic and neurotypical people.

It has long been shown that the presence of others can change individual behaviour. For example, social facilitation is when behaviour changes with the mere presence of another (Cottrell et al., 1968). This change in behaviour can lead to an increase in performance for well-learned tasks but lower performance when there is a need to learn a new skill. Literature investigating audience effects also highlights that individual behaviour changes in the presence of another. An audience effect is how behaviour changes when being observed, which differs from social facilitation, as audience effects are only present when someone is aware they are being directly observed rather than the mere presence of another. However, the impact of this effect can, again, change depending on the type of task. For example, research has found that when the task is ‘hard’, audience effects may reduce performance, however, audience effects may improve performance on ‘easy’ tasks (Bond & Titus, 1983). This means that when people complete tasks that they find more challenging they may exhibit lower scores when being observed compared to unobserved and the opposite is true when completing tasks they find less challenging. Whilst these findings have been widely replicated, types of problems that increase or decrease audience effects and the impact of individual differences remain under studied. One area where having another person present may be beneficial would be when completing ill-structured tasks. Ill-structured problems are defined as a problem with one or more aspect that is not defined or described, which leads to some ambiguity about the rules or the process of solving this problem. Therefore the presence of the another may serve a functional purpose during this type of problem solving as it may offer an opportunity to obtain additional information beyond what is defined in the description (Ge & Land, 2006) When completing ill-structured problems gaining additional information may help people clarify the necessary information needed to complete the problem more effectively. For example, Sweller (1988) argue that the cognitive load that is experienced when completing complex problem-solving tasks may be reduced if there is an opportunity to reduce this load, which may be facilitated by questioning during the task to obtain additional information. Therefore, the opportunity for reducing cognitive load, by asking questions, during ill-structured problem solving may facilitate higher success rates. Individual differences also play a key role in audience effects, as audience effects have been shown to be reduced for autistic people. For example, Chevallier et al. (2012) asked neurotypical and autistic children aged 12-15 to rank drawings on how much they liked the picture. They found that neurotypical children would give higher ratings if they believed that the person who drew the picture was listening, however those with autism did not engage in this type of flattery and ratings were similar across conditions. In further support of this, Chevallier et al., (2012) administered theory of mind tasks in social (human experimenter present) and non-social settings (online) and found that whilst neurotypical children exhibited an increase in performance in the social setting, autistic children performed similarly in both conditions. These findings may indicate that autistic people do not experience the same benefits from an audience as neurotypical children. However, this effect has currently been explored in the domain of impression management and theory of mind and remains understudied in practical problem-solving tasks. A further individual difference that may impact the effect of a watching audience is social anxiety. Social anxiety is an intense fear of social situations which can lead to avoiding social situations (Morrison & Heimburg, 2013). Previous research has highlighted that audience effects appear to be increased in those with social anxiety, with participants who exhibit high social anxiety scores experiencing a reduction in performance when being watched (Hutchinson & Cotton, 1973). 30% of people with autism also have social anxiety (Simonoff et al., 2008) and we are not aware of any research to date that has explored audience effects in those with autism and social anxiety. Therefore, due to the differing impact of a watching audience on those with autism and those with high social anxiety, levels of social anxiety are important variables to consider when exploring the influence of audience effects on different types of problems for autistic and neurotypical people.

Philip Morris Records; report; extr, extra

191 pages

The purpose of this was to find the studying mathayomsuksa I students achievement in social studies, religion and culture and ability in solving problem the instructional methods based on Cippa and Four noble truths. The sample of the study were 90 students of Mathayomsuksa I of Sinakharinwirot University Laboratory School during the second semester of the 2010 academic year. They were randomly selected by using cluster random sampling method and assigned into two groups, with 45 students in each. The first experimental group was taught through leaming using Cippa where as the second was taught through leaming using Four noble truths. I took 18 teaching periods for each group. The research design of this study was Randomized group Pretest Posttest. The 1-test Independent sample and t-test for dependent sample (Different score) was used for data analysis The results of this study indicated that 1. The students approached by Cippe model with Four noble truths model had achievement on social studies religion and culture was not different 2. The students approached by Cippa model had their higher Post-Test achievement on social studies religion and culture than pre-test 3. The students approached by Four noble truths model had their higher Post-Test achievement on social studies religion and culture than pre-lest 4. The students approached by Cippa model with Four noble truths model had problem solving ability was not different 6. The students approached by Cippa model had problem solving abilly higher Post-Test than pre-test

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This study investigated the effects of informative feedback on a matching task with three combinations of verbal feedback and three levels of task complexity. The three types of feedback were right wrong (RW), nothing wrong (NW), and right nothing (RN). The three levels of task complexity were defined in terms of number of irrelevant stimulus dimensions. Subjects were 180 first grade pupils presented with nonsense shapes serving as the stimuli. The RW condition yielded significantly better performance than the other feedback conditions, and in addition, NW resulted in a faster rate of learning than RN. The findings have implications for programmed learning regarding the merits of right and wrong feedback signals. Furthermore, the results imply that wrong signals are less ambiguous on four response problems than right signals. (Author)

THREE- AND 4-YEAR-OLDS WERE GIVEN VERBAL LEARNING PRETRAINING TO DETERMINE ITS EFFECT UPON THE PERFORMANCE OF REVERSAL AND NONREVERSAL SHIFT DISCRIMINATION TASKS. THE EXPERIMENTAL TASK WAS THE CLASSICAL REVERSAL-NONREVERSAL SHIFT PARADIGM. THE 96 PRE-SCHOOLERS, PRIMARILY FROM THE PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY NURSERY SCHOOL, WERE DIVIDED INTO 4 GROUPS, 3 OF WHICH RECEIVED PRETRAINING AND 1 OF WHICH DID NOT. THE DATA COLLECTED WERE TREATED BY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE. RESULTS SHOWED THAT THE REVERSAL SHIFT WAS QUICKER AND EASIER FOR THE CHILDREN THAN THE NONREVERSAL. A SECOND EXPERIMENT USING 48 CHILDREN CONFIRMED THESE FINDINGS ALTHOUGH PREVIOUS EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND VERBAL MEDIATION THEORY HAD INDICATED THAT THE NONREVERSAL SHIFT WAS EASIER FOR THE CHILDREN. OTHER VARIABLES SUCH AS THE CHILDREN'S PROFICIENCY IN VERBAL MEDIATING RESPONSES MAY HAVE CAUSED THE PRESENT STUDY RESULTS, BUT THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VERBAL LABELING PRETRAINING AND TYPE OF SHIFT REMAINS INCONCLUSIVE. FURTHER STUDIES SHOULD DETERMINE WAYS TO IDENTIFY AND ISOLATE VARIABLES WHICH AFFECT THE ABILITY OF YOUNGSTERS TO PERFORM EXPERIMENTAL TASKS. THIS DOCUMENT WAS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY AT PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY. (MS)

THREE- AND 4-YEAR-OLDS WERE GIVEN VERBAL LEARNING PRETRAINING TO DETERMINE ITS EFFECT UPON THE PERFORMANCE OF REVERSAL AND NONREVERSAL SHIFT DISCRIMINATION TASKS. THE EXPERIMENTAL TASK WAS THE CLASSICAL REVERSAL-NONREVERSAL SHIFT PARADIGM. THE 96 PRE-SCHOOLERS, PRIMARILY FROM THE PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY NURSERY SCHOOL, WERE DIVIDED INTO 4 GROUPS, 3 OF WHICH RECEIVED PRETRAINING AND 1 OF WHICH DID NOT. THE DATA COLLECTED WERE TREATED BY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE. RESULTS SHOWED THAT THE REVERSAL SHIFT WAS QUICKER AND EASIER FOR THE CHILDREN THAN THE NONREVERSAL. A SECOND EXPERIMENT USING 48 CHILDREN CONFIRMED THESE FINDINGS ALTHOUGH PREVIOUS EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND VERBAL MEDIATION THEORY HAD INDICATED THAT THE NONREVERSAL SHIFT WAS EASIER FOR THE CHILDREN. OTHER VARIABLES SUCH AS THE CHILDREN'S PROFICIENCY IN VERBAL MEDIATING RESPONSES MAY HAVE CAUSED THE PRESENT STUDY RESULTS, BUT THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VERBAL LABELING PRETRAINING AND TYPE OF SHIFT REMAINS INCONCLUSIVE. FURTHER STUDIES SHOULD DETERMINE WAYS TO IDENTIFY AND ISOLATE VARIABLES WHICH AFFECT THE ABILITY OF YOUNGSTERS TO PERFORM EXPERIMENTAL TASKS. THIS DOCUMENT WAS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY AT PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY. (MS)

A study investigated the effects of test anxiety, as measured by the Test Anxiety Scale for Children (TASC), on memory processes in problem solving and the extent to which memory support reduced this effect. Two experiments were performed on 40 and 96 subjects respectively, from grades 5 and 6. Each experiment utilized a factoral design involving two levels of test anxiety (Ss having upper- or lower-quartile TASC scores) and two memory conditions (supported and not supported). Experiment 1 subjects, selected from 170 who had completed the TASC, were paired: high-anxious (upper quartile) subjects with low-anxious (lower quartile) subjects by matching with respect to sex and IQ before assignment to the two memory-support conditions. Experiment 2 subjects, selected on the same basis from a similar group of 379, were divided by sex and assigned at random (with some restrictions) to the two conditions. Experiment 1 involved a puzzle; dependent measures were errors committed and recognition of potential errors. Experiment 2 involved concept formation; dependent measures were trials to criterion, and positive- and negative-exemplar memory errors. Analyses of variance and chi square analyses were performed. Significant main and interaction effects indicated that test anxiety interfered with short-term memory, and memory support reduced differences between performance of high- and low-anxious subjects. (Author/JS)

This book contains selected research papers presented at seminars held throughout the year 2000 in Finland by members of the Finnish Association for Research in Mathematics and Science Education (FARMSE) and students at the Finnish Graduate School of Mathematics, Physics, and Chemistry Education. This volume also contains papers professor Laurence Viennot, Universite Paris VII, France and professor Georgios Tsaparlis, University of Ioannina, Greece, who gave lectures and workshops at the spring seminar of the Graduate School in Joensuu, Finland, and by professor Erikki Pehkonen, who gave a lecture at the summer seminar in Vaasa, Finland. Papers include: (1) "The Finnish Graduate School of Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry Education" (Maija Ahte and Virpi Vatanen); (2) "A Hidden Regulating Factor in Mathematics Classrooms: Mathematics-Related Beliefs" (Erkki Pehkonen); (3) "Primary School Teachers' Mathematics Beliefs, Teaching Practices and Use of Textbooks" (Paivi Perkkila); (4) "Mathematics for Primary School Teachers" (Silja Pesonen); (5) "The Metalevel of Cognition-Emotion Interaction" (Markku S. Hannula); (6) "Problem Solving in Chemistry and Science Education" (Georgios Tsaparlis); (7) "Physics Education Research: Inseparable Contents and Methods--The Part Played by Critical Details" (Laurence Viennot); (8) "The Force Concept Inventory in Diagnosing the Conceptual Understanding of Newtonian Mechanics in Finnish Upper Secondary Schools" (Johanna Jauhiainen, Ismo T. Koponen, and Jari Lavonen); and (9) "An Evaluation of Interactive Teaching Methods in Mechanics: Using the Force Concept Inventory To Monitor Student Learning" (Antti Savinainen). (Most papers contain references.) (YDS)

Research indicates that people do not spontaneously transfer prior clues to solve problems, even though the necessary information is available in memory. To investigate the effects of the symmetry between clue statements and problem statements on problem solving performance, subjects were asked to provide plausible explanations for five incomprehensible sentences. The clue words for clarifying the sentences were embedded in four types of sentence contexts: (1) similar surface/similar deep (containing at least two words also found in the problem statement/or an underlying relational structure similar to the problem statement); (2) dissimilar surface/similar deep; (3) similar surface/dissimilar deep; (4) dissimilar surface/dissimilar deep; and irrelevant clues. In the experiment subjects were given a list of 15 statements and asked either to rate their truthfulness or memorize them. After 30 seconds the five problem statements were presented. Subjects either were informed or uninformed about the relevance of the clues. Clues embedded in sentences that had little deep structural similarity to the problem statement did not facilitate problem solving unless subjects were informed about the potential relevance of those clues, regardless of whether they rated or memorized the clue sentences. However, clues in statements that had high deep structural similarity to the problem statement did facilitate problem solving in both the informed and uninformed conditions. These results suggest that the similarity in deep structure between the clue encoding context and the problem encoding context is an important determinant of transfer. (JAC)

Forty-four computer programs specifically designed to help students learn English as a second language (ESL) are listed. The programs chosen focus on a linguistic activity, are appropriate for any proficiency level, are considered appropriate for students of high school and adult age (excluding college-level foreign students), and have been produced or updated since 1983. Programs for native speakers felt to be easily adapted to second language learners are also included, but word processing programs and programs requiring random-access tape and/or a videodisk player are excluded. Tables give information about the software producer, price, needed hardware, copyright, focus, activity type (drills, tutorials, games, and problem-solving), grade level, proficiency level, ESL-readiness, modifiability, and management options. A final section highlights 10 titles with outstanding characteristics and one product line recommended for preview. (MSE)

In this research report, the question of the role of the teacher in problem-solving contexts is addressed, particularly in relation to the development of mathematical concepts. Data extracts from a problem-solving session are used to draw out three sorts of teaching actions that aim to push forward the mathematics in the classroom. These teaching actions are discussed in light of verbatim extracts and of available theoretical constructs from the research literature. [For the complete proceedings, see ED606531.]

A randomized posttest-only control group experimental design was used to determine the effects of think-aloud pair problem solving (TAPPS) on the troubleshooting performance of 34 secondary-level career and technical education students. There was no significant difference in success rate between TAPPS students and students who worked alone ([chi][superscript 2] (1) = 0.747, p = 0.39, [phi] = 0.148). There was no significant difference in completion time between students who successfully completed the troubleshooting task using TAPPS and those who were successful working alone (t (9) = -0.74, p = 0.48, d = 0.45). The researchers tentatively concluded that the use of TAPPS may not be an appropriate strategy at the secondary level if the agricultural instructors' focus is a higher success rate and a reduction in the time to complete the task. However, agricultural instructors may have other legitimate reasons for using TAPPS such as a way to facilitate collaborative learning or as a way for instructors to identify student misunderstandings that could be used to inform decisions about individualized or even group instructional interventions. (Contains 2 figures and 1 table.)

A study on the applicability of Snyder's 1968 prototheory of instructional efficiency to a complex problem-solving situation was made, using 120 sixth grade students of three geographically separated Pennsylvania schools in 1972. Four task groups, 30 subjects (Ss) each, were formed by randomly assigning four task arrangements to Ss in answering a genetics problem. The task varied in number of information items (hints) presented, either four or eight, and amount of "learning structure" used. The structure was made different by instructing Ss to read either in an arbitrary order or mandatory order. To reduce errors, a researcher-constructed machine was used to present the problem and hints and record students' responses and verbal expressions. Two revised efficiency formulas, respectively equivalent to Snyder's two original formulas, were introduced. Data about the four groups were analyzed to compare the revised and original formulas, and pooled results were used to study students' performance. The revised formula was proved equivalent to Snyder's expression for transaction mean needed by a teacher-student dyad to solve a problem. Both hint and learning structure had no effect on Ss performance. Extension of the present study was recommended. (CC)

The purpose of this exploratory study was to examine the effectiveness of learner manipulation of visuals with and without organizing cues in computer-based instruction on adults' factual, conceptual, and problem-solving learning. An instructional unit involving the physiology and the anatomy of the heart was used. A post-test only control group design was applied with 74 undergraduate subjects from a large eastern university. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of three treatment groups: learner generated with cued visual organization; learner generated with uncued visual organization; and control (system-provided organization). The dependent variables measured the subject's ability to identify individual parts of the heart using visual cues; retain facts and definitions; reproduce key information; and utilize the information for problem solving. The results showed that in no case were the scores on either treatment group involving manipulation of visuals greater than the control group which provided the visuals. (Contains 30 references.) (Author/JLB)

Tim Farley talks to Former Gov. Jon Huntsman (R-UT) and Former Sen. Joe Lieberman (I-CT), the national co-chairs of No Labels, at the No Labels Problem Solvers Convention in Manchester, NH. This interview aired on SiriusXM's POTUS Channel 124's "Midday Briefing with Tim Farley" airing weekdays at 12 PM East. The Channel also has a partnership with No Labels - hear No Labels Radio, Saturdays at 10AM East, hosted by Jon Huntsman. Source: https://soundcloud.com/siriusxm-news-issues/jon-huntsman-and-joe-lieberman-on-problem-solving-breaking-the-gridlock Uploader: SiriusXM News & Issues

This study was designed to determine the effectiveness of two methods of individualized instruction compared to the traditional textbook-lecture method in teaching introductory accounting courses. The two experimental class sections and the control class section involved in the study enrolled a total of 71 students. In the first individualized instruction class, students used a study guide and a textbook. In the second individualized instruction class, students used a study guide, textbook, and audio-cassette presentations of the material. Achievement gains were measured through pre- and posttests. At the end of the semester, students were asked to respond to an attitude survey and to complete a case problem which required them to apply concepts learned to a new situation. Results indicated no significant differences in achievement gains, attitudes toward accounting, or problem-solving ability. It was also found that (1) both individualized instruction methods were equally effective, (2) students' high school rank had no effect on achievement gains, attitudes, or problem solving ability, and (3) students of higher high school rank had more positive attitudes toward the course than students of lower rank regardless of the treatment experienced. A review of pertinent literature is included and the research methodology is detailed. (DC)

This research aims to investigate how to develop pre-service teachers in early childhood education through employing group-based problem-solving. Participant in this research are 4th year study of pre-service teachers in early childhood education. Forty seven pre-service teachers were selected in the second semester, academic year 2010 by purposive sampling. Research tools were experiences plan and attributes test of pre-service teachers in early childhood education. Findings revealed that pre-service teachers aware their interpersonal accord and conformity at highest percent than those others. Knowledge, and moral and ethics of pre-service teachers expressed in medium and high levels. While learning management showed in low and medium levels. (Contains 2 tables.) [Financial support for this research was provided by the Faculty of Education, Mahasarakham University.]

A randomized posttest-only control group experimental design was used to determine the effects of regulatory self-questioning on secondary-level career and technical education students' electrical circuit theory test scores. Students who participated in the self-questioning group were asked to answer a list of regulatory questions as they solved their problems. The difference in test scores between the experimental and control groups was statistically significant (t(62) = 1.96; p = 0.027). On average, students who participated in the self-questioning group outperformed students in the control group by 10 percentage points. Cohen's d indicated a moderate effect size (0.5). In the control group, 53% of students achieved a test score of 80% or better on the Ohm's Law test, whereas 79% of students in the regulatory self-questioning group scored 80% or better. The use of regulatory self-questioning may positively benefit teachers who teach principles of Ohm's Law. Educators could assist students in achieving greater problem-solving outcomes by requiring use of regulatory self-questioning. This study should be replicated to determine the effects of regulatory self-questioning with other secondary-level students. Further research should be conducted to investigate the effects of regulatory self-questioning when students are faced with increasingly complex problems. (Contains 3 figures and 2 tables.)

This study examined the relative effect of a HyperCard based approach to solving stoichiometric equations using Hyperequation, and traditional pen-paper methods on the performance of expert and novice high school chemistry students. Hyperequation is programmed to register student responses, provide immediate feedback, and keep a record of all the responses made including the overall time needed for problem solving for each student. The sample consisted of 30 honors and 30 regular chemistry students comprising the expert and novice groups respectively. The students were from a public high school in Columbus, Ohio. Half of each group received the traditional pen-paper test and half the HyperCard tests. The findings indicate that students from both the expert and novice groups scored significantly higher on the HyperCard method than on the pen-paper method. (PR)

Three Rural Education Conferences sponsored during 1977 by the National Institute of Education proposed to find ways to strengthen the capacity of people at the local level to identify and solve their own education problems. The first conference focused on the nature of rural communities and the political, social, economic, and geographic variables which impact upon schools. Participants agreed that identification of problems and efforts to solve them should be initiated by those involved in and affected by the local education program, not by outside experts. The second conference explored the participants' experiences with a variety of programs designed to improve education in rural settings. Capacity building strategies derived from experiences related in the conference included: collaborative problem solving; community organization; regional information exchange and referral service; inter-agency coordination; associations of users; networking; and leadership development. School administrators and education decision makers added perspectives on rural school improvement in the third conference, identified critical elements that should be part of any strategy (community involvement, leadership development, and networking), and asserted that because rural settings are so varied, it may be more difficult to generalize across rural settings than across urban ones. Lists of participants in each conference are included. (NEC)

To ascertain if children's use of manipulatives and/or the teacher's presentation of the problem in parts (chunking) affect children's ability to model and/or solve addition and/or subtraction problems, 146 first-grade subjects were administered the Houston Addition and Subtraction Problem-Solving Test which provided accuracy and modeling scores for two addition and three subtraction problem types. The test was presented in holistic (not chunked) and parsimonious (chunked) forms. Results indicated that chunking significantly affects children's ability to solve nontransformational addition problems. The interaction of chunking and modeling significantly improved the subjects' ability to solve take-away subtraction problems. (Author)

Presentation scripts for two sound filmstrips are contained in this document, which accompanies a career development unit on coping in the world of work designed to assist students in developing coping strategies to deal with work entry and job adjustment problems. (Other components of the unit--instructor's handbook, student guide, and handout/transparency masters, and the filmstrips with cassette tapes--are available separately.) (TA)

This paper presents an analysis of the classroom events that a group of future teachers of Secondary Education mathematics identified from their own experience when using GeoGebra to solve problems. The data analyzed are from the written materials by twelve mathematics majors who were studying the Mathematics for Teaching course. The students, in pairs, solved three problems using GeoGebra. They were then asked to posit three events that could arise if their students were to use GeoGebra to solve problems. After analyzing the events presented, they were classified in terms of mathematical reasoning, mathematical creation and techno-mathematical ability. [For the complete proceedings, see ED629884.]

This publication was designed to help teachers learn about promising materials, methods, and techniques for teaching creative thinking and problem solving to disadvantaged elementary school children. Two kinds of reviews of published teaching materials for specific grade levels and subject areas are included: (1) reviews of commercially published materials dealing with creativity and problem solving and (2) reviews of books that can be used, as teaching aids and/or stimulus materials. In addition, information about teaching methods which can be adapted by the teacher to fit any grade level and subject area is presented. Detailed tasks, exercises, and procedures for teaching creativity and problem solving in the classroom are included. Most of the materials reviewed in this publication will work well in open and individualized classrooms; however, teachers who maintain a more traditional classroom organization will find that many of the materials and methods can be adapted to meet their needs. (Author/AM)

This study extended concepts derived from Rothkopf's mathemagenic hypothesis to problem solving. While previous mathemagenic research has established that adjunct questions interspersed with written prose facilitates learning, it has been criticized as educationally nonsignificant because the research has focused on verbatim learning. To test basic mathemagenic concepts under educationally relevent conditions, a 2 x 2 ANOVA (analysis of variance) was used to assess the effects of type of adjunct questions (comprehension vs. verbatim) and placement of questions (before or after prose segments) on problem solving, with problem solving defined as the ability to apply concepts and principles to problem situations. College undergraduates read prose segments dealing with learning theory and answered related adjunct questions before completing five problem situations on the criterion test. Comprehension questions resulted in significantly higher problem solving scores, but no significant differences due to question placement were found. Subjects receiving comprehension postquestions did significantly better than all other groups. The results were consistent with previous mathemagenic hypothesis research findings. (Author/TS)

The effectiveness of the Productive Thinking Program in developing creative thinking and problem solving abilities among 370 pupils in grades four through seven was examined. An exploratory investigation of the program's instructional content was also undertaken. At all four grade levels studied, instructed pupils' scores on Covington's Childhood Attitude Inventory for Problem Solving were significantly greater than those of controls'. There were no significant indications of transfer from the instructional program to scores on verbal tests of creative thinking, or problem solving batteries, at any of the grade levels tested. Pupils written responses were evaluated in five general categories: Memory-Organization, Production, Reorganization, Judgment-Evaluation, and Attitude. Those high and low on each of these factors were compared with a sub-sample of control pupils on each of three creative problem solving criteria, with no significant differences among these groups for any response factor across all grade levels. Results were interpreted in terms of three factors: conditions under which the program was administered, criterion difficulty, and complexity of the abilities involved. (Author/CJ)

A study investigated ways that adult educators might introduce educational activity into a community problem-solving situation and attempted to determine the influence of this activity on growth of the community-problem-solving group. Adult educators by definition included cooperative extension agents, social workers, community mental health workers, Community Action Program personnel, and pastors; group growth was operationally defined as developing the capacity to solve increasingly complex problems, both community problems groups attempt to solve and problems associated with group operations. (A two-dimensional group growth model and a five-dimensional adult educator model identifying educator functions are included in the study report.) Ten problem-solving situations were studied in small Wisconsin communities. Comparison of field data (gathered by observations and interviews) from five of the ten case studies generated the following hypotheses: group growth is positively influenced by (1) the encouraging function of the educator, (2) the linking-with-knowledge function, (3) the linking-with-human-resources function, (4) trust between adult educator and group, (5) strong feelings about a community problem, (6) group growth in leadership, (7) low activity educator style in a group with well developed leadership capacity, and (8) high activity educator style in a group without well developed leadership capacity; group growth is negatively affected by the enlisting-support function of the educator. These hypotheses do suggest implications for adult educators working with community groups, but they must be tested before definitive conclusions can be drawn. Also, further research may suggest modifications to the group growth and adult educator frameworks developed in this study. (DTT)

This paper is a commentary on three other papers presented at the 1983 American Educational Research Association Symposium on "The Trainability of Information Processing and Problem Solving Skills." The papers focus on certain aspects of the training of complex skills, such as reading, that can presumably be broken down into a variety of skills. In "Teaching Vocabulary-Building Skills: A Contextual Approach," R. J. Sternberg makes the case well for the importance of knowing how to use context effectively to infer the meanings of unfamiliar words and provides a systematic approach that is certainly worthy of experimental study. "Developing Skills by Training to Develop New Automatic Components," by W. Schneider, identifies a number of issues relating to the training of complex skills and challenges what the author views as some prevailing false assumptions regarding these issues. "A Componential Approach to Training Reading Skills," by J. R. Frederiksen et. al, states that learning some of the skills that are essential to reading (via computer-based games) can be made fun, and provides compelling evidence for his claim. All three papers have useful and provocative things to say about the trainability of information-processing and problem-solving skills and, in particular, the complex skill of reading. (Author/PN)

This work addresses the importance of innovation in entrepreneurial and business education to ensure that students develop the ability to make complex decisions and solve complex challenges. The intention was to incorporate the complexity theory in decision-making and problem-solving in business and entrepreneurship. To achieve this, we present the results of the first phase of our project, aiming to scale the levels of complex thinking in university students, discuss the need for business and entrepreneurship students to develop complex thinking competency (including its sub-competencies of critical, systemic, scientific, and innovative thinking) in the complexity of the business environment, analyze the relevance of system elements, apply their inductive and deductive reasoning, and create appropriate and relevant solutions. Our findings suggest that an educational model focused on developing complex thinking and its four sub-competencies can enable entrepreneurs to integrate sustainable development, increase their social engagement and critical thinking, develop their imaginative intelligence and discursive and reflective skills, and thus improve their decision-making and problem-solving processes. In the future, we plan to extend this analysis to the behavior of real-life entrepreneurs. [For the full proceedings, see ED654100.]

A study was carried out at Pennsylvania State University to examine the effects of both textual and computer animated orienting activities--i.e., mediators through which new information is presented to the learner--and practice on the application and problem solving skills of elementary school students. It was hypothesized that students provided with orienting materials containing textual and animated information would acquire both skills more effectively than students provided either activity alone or neither activity. It was further hypothesized that practice would be of greatest value where orienting support was minimal. Subjects consisted of 111 fourth, fifth, and sixth grade students from a rural public elementary school who were randomly assigned to either a text, animated, or text plus animated orienting activity group, or to a control group having no orienting activity. Groups were divided into practice and no practice subgroups. Upon completion of the computer-assisted instruction lesson, students were administered a posttest measuring both application and problem solving skills. Results indicated that the nature of the orienting activity did not affect the learning of either application or problem solving skills; however, practice was found to hamper performance for both skills, and no interactions were detected. (MES)

This research will use tool-use as a model system to understand how children learn to solve new problems. Specifically, it will test the effects of gains for success and penalties for error on how children solve problems adaptively.

This research will use tool-use as a model system to understand how children learn to solve new problems. Specifically, it will test the effects of gains for success and penalties for error on how children solve problems adaptively.

Let V be a bounded, connected linearly convex set in C^n with $C^{1+\epsilon}$-boundary. We show that the maximal ideal (both in A(V) and $H^{\infty}(V)$) consisting of all functions vanishing at p in V is generated by the coordinate functions z_1 - p_1, ..., z_n - p_n.

To explore the effects of system failure (data error) and time limitations on problem-solving behavior and performance 12 experiments were conducted using two inferential reasoning tasks. In general system failure and time limitations lead to significant decrements in performance. In addition, a protocol analysis of problem-solving behavior revealed under both normal and system failure was indicative of a lack of development of metacognitive strategies for working under unreliable conditions. It was recommended that system training under degraded modes of operation should include some provisions for imposing time limits for the completion of certain tasks.

The Susceptible-Infected-Susceptible model is a canonical model for emerging disease outbreaks. Such outbreaks are naturally modeled as taking place on networks. A theoretical challenge in network epidemiology is the dynamic correlations coming from that if one node is occupied, or infected (for disease spreading models), then its neighbors are likely to be occupied. By combining two theoretical approaches---the heterogeneous mean-field theory and the effective degree method---we are able to include these correlations in an analytical solution of the SIS model. We derive accurate expressions for the average prevalence (fraction of infected) and epidemic threshold. We also discuss how to generalize the approach to a larger class of stochastic population models.

The Susceptible-Infected-Susceptible model is a canonical model for emerging disease outbreaks. Such outbreaks are naturally modeled as taking place on networks. A theoretical challenge in network epidemiology is the dynamic correlations coming from that if one node is occupied, or infected (for disease spreading models), then its neighbors are likely to be occupied. By combining two theoretical approaches---the heterogeneous mean-field theory and the effective degree method---we are able to include these correlations in an analytical solution of the SIS model. We derive accurate expressions for the average prevalence (fraction of infected) and epidemic threshold. We also discuss how to generalize the approach to a larger class of stochastic population models.

This report summarizes SRI International's third year of research on a system for automatically generating hierarchical plans containing parallel (concurrent) actions. This is a general planning and problem-solving system that is not tied to a particular domain. Results of this research might eventually be used in the development of systems for automatically generating plans to coordinate the activities of military personnel engaged in a common mission. Other domains of applications could include logistical planning, planning the concurrent use of many computers on a single network, and planning the movements of a robot arm.

This report summarizes SRI International's third year of research on a system for automatically generating hierarchical plans containing parallel (concurrent) actions. This is a general planning and problem-solving system that is not tied to a particular domain. Results of this research might eventually be used in the development of systems for automatically generating plans to coordinate the activities of military personnel engaged in a common mission. Other domains of applications could include logistical planning, planning the concurrent use of many computers on a single network, and planning the movements of a robot arm.

The aim of this study was two-fold. The first aim was to determine the levels of critical thinking disposition and perception of problem-solving ability of pre-service teachers. The second aim was to compare the effects of problem-based learning and traditional teaching methods on the critical thinking dispositions and perceptions of problem-solving ability of pre-service teachers, when implemented in the teaching of the acid-base topic. Participants for the study consisted of 49 pre-service teachers. A pre-test-post-test control group design was used. Data were obtained using the California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory and Problem-Solving Inventory. It was generally determined that pre-service teachers exhibit low levels of critical thinking disposition and medium levels of perception of problem-solving ability. Also, while problem-based learning and traditional teaching methods did not have different effects on the critical thinking dispositions of pre-service teachers, they had different effects on their perceptions of problem-solving ability.

Women as an important stratum of society play a fundamental role in the creation, establishment and strengthening of families. So, paying attention to their mental health as the family guides has direct effects on the mental health of children, families and consequently the whole of society. Thus, the present study was performed to investigate the moderating effect of the economic situation on the relationship between problem solving skills and mental health in two groups of working women and housewives referring to Welfare Centers in the city of Karaj. Based on Morgan's sampling table, 199 working women and 192 housewives (totally 391) were selected by simple random sampling method. Then, Cassidy and Long (1996) Problem-Solving Style Questionnaire and Goldberg (1989) General Health Questionnaire were administered on the sample group, and data were analyzed using SPSS software (ver. 17). The results showed that the economy had an independent contribution in predicting the mental health of working women, but it was not capable to act as a moderating variable in relationship between problem-solving skill and mental health of working women. In addition, according to the results obtained from the housewife population, not only the economy does not have an independent contribution in the prediction of their mental health, but also it cannot act as a moderating variable in this relationship. But the problem-solving skill alone explains 23.8% of the variance of mental health in the sample population. In other words, problem-solving ability was effective in increasing the level of mental health. But the impact of economy as a moderating variable in the relationship between problem-solving skill and mental health of housewives and working women was not significant.

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The approach used by teachers is very important to the success of the teaching process. This is why this study seeks to determine which teaching approaches--problem solving and subject-matter, would best improve the problem solving ability of selected secondary agricultural education students in Ikorodu Local Government Area. Ten classes and 150 students, based on Hay's (1973) cluster sampling formula for determining sample size, were selected. The classes were taught with instructional units prepared using the problem solving approach model presented in Newcomb, McCracken and Warmbrod (1993) and subject matter approach as described by Rosenshine and Steven (1986). At the conclusion of all instruction, a problem solving ability posttest and Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT) Instruments were administered to all participants. The scores obtained from the problem solving ability posttest was analyzed using the univariate analysis of covariance and it found, among other things, problem solving approaches scored significantly higher (P = 0.046) on the posttest than scores of students assigned to classes using the subject matter approach. The implication of this figure is that the problem solving ability of secondary school students can be accelerated with instructional approaches, such as the problem solving technique. (Contains 3 tables.)

This paper compared the efficacy of these two methods on retention, understanding and problem solving in the biology keeping in the mind the fact that student's learning style has a role as a moderator variable. The intervening effects on retention, understanding and problem solving were measured by two academic achievement tests that those have the confirmable validity and reliability indexes. The group embedded figures test were used to assess field dependence and field independence learning styles. This research based on a quasi-experiment design. The pre-organized classrooms were selected by purposive sampling as four experiment groups and two control groups. The prepared concept maps were presented in process of teaching on the two experiment group's members and the other two experiment group members constructed concept maps from the instructed subjects. Results show that the concept map presenting method has more positive effects than the concept map constructing method in conditions that the students have field dependence learning style. Vice verse the concept map constructing method has advantage on the concept map presenting method in conditions that the students have field independence learning style.

This paper describes a models and modeling framework that has been applied to various areas in teaching, learning and problem solving. It examines the implications of that framework on metacognition and higher order thinking during everyday problem-solving situations that required teams of students to produce complex solutions in approximately 1-2 hours. In a team of students, there may be multiple interpretations of a complex problem situation and communication of interpretations effects problem solving. This changes the role of metacognition. (Author)