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Face processing has been shown to have a fundamental role to learn social skills and attend to social information (Rajhans et al., 2016). Facial emotion processing is critical to social cognitive ability, and previous research has suggested that language plays a role in the development of social cognitive skills, including non-verbal emotion recognition tasks. Bigelow et al. (2022) showed that several ERP components were correlated with language development during childhood, and that it depends on facial expression. They found that P100 latency for negative expressions increased with language, while Late Positive Potential (LPP) amplitude increased with language for negative and neutral expressions. Several Event-related Potential (ERP) components have shown to reflect these abilities. ERPs are defined as very small voltages generated in the brain structures in response to specific events or stimuli. Furthermore, N290 has been shown to reflect facial emotion processing in young children, with smaller amplitude in response to fearful expressions, compared to happy or neutral ones. Additionally, N290 amplitudes are reduced in young compared to older children; this is thought to be due to the high-level cognition that has been developed across time (van den Boomen; Xie et al., 2019). However, controversial findings for N290 amplitudes and latencies have been found. For instance, Rajhans et al. (2016) showed that no effects were observed for face-sensitive processing as reflected in the N290, thought to be involved in face encoding in infants. Therefore, the current study will provide insights about the neural correlates of infant facial emotion processing in the second year of life and will have the potential to serve as a reference on the typical development of the neural mechanisms underlying infant facial emotion processing. Therefore, using baseline visit data from the Kia Tīmata Pai (KTP) study, we aim to conduct cross-sectional analysis to investigate how N290 amplitude and latency 1) associate with age in early development 2) differ in response to different emotional stimuli (angry, fearful, happy faces). We will assess a total of 200 children, between 13 and 30 months old. EEG data were collected while infants were viewing images of angry, happy, and neutral faces. Furthermore, we will 3) investigate the relationship between N290 amplitudes and latencies, and oral language development. We expect to see greater amplitude and later latency to be associated with better performance in the oral language measures. The novelty of this study is the combination of EEG and oral language measures. Not many studies investigated the associations between these two variables across early development.

This review conducted to map existing literature evidence regarding the use of digital learning media on the development of second languages or bilingualism in children aged 6-12 years to give additional new information and formulate future primary research, especially in the fields of learning design and psycholinguistic.

The report details the fourth year (October 1996-September 30, 1997) of a Trinity College (Ireland) program to offer second language learning modules to students who are not language majors. The modules' objectives are to develop students' communication skills for study, travel, or work abroad during undergraduate years, and to enhance their academic qualifications, vocational prospects, and potential for future mobility. Students can take the language modules for 1 or 2 years; each year of study is complete in itself. Courses in French, German, and Italian are designed for students in specific non-language curriculum areas (the arts, engineering, science, and health sciences). The report outlines the courses offered in 1996-97 and their recruitment, participation, and completion rates, and describes the modules' design and content. It also describes the design and results of testing, and presents brief reports of external evaluations of the French and German modules. A final section describes activities of research and development activities on the project in 1996-97, which included provision of new services to students and experimentation with new technology and techniques for language learning. (MSE)

If teacher education is to train second language teachers to be principled practitioners, it is essential to resist the attraction of panaceas and recipe-type solutions to instructional problems, and to promote teachers' better understanding of what constitutes successful language learning. Second language acquisition (SLA) research, both applied and theoretical, can play an important role in this process, particularly in the areas of interlanguage and errors, learning vs. acquisition, and learning styles and learning strategies. The SLA component in the training program can be presented in the form of basic training in classroom research or incorporated into an experiential learning cycle in either pre-service or in-service training. In the latter case, trainers play a mediating role. However, teachers and researchers must cooperate to turn theory into practice. Teacher trainers can supply both learners, needed as subjects by researchers, and ideas for useful research; researchers can provide research results to be translated into classroom practice. Such collaboration requires that trainers and researchers understand each others' terminology, possibly through an intermediate literature that makes research accessible to classroom teachers. In addition, more teacher training material on SLA is needed. (MSE)

This study investigates a novel method of captioning, partial and synchronized, as a listening tool for second language (L2) learners. In this method, the term partial and synchronized caption (PSC) pertains to the presence of a selected set of words in a caption where words are synced to their corresponding speech signal, using a state-of-the-art automatic speech recognition (ASR) technology. The system automatically selects words/phrases which are likely to hinder the learner's listening comprehension and discards the rest. To evaluate the system, the performance of 58 Kyoto University students was assessed by a listening comprehension test on TED talks, under three conditions: no caption, full caption and PSC. Analysis of results revealed that while reducing the textual density of captions to less than 30%, PSC realizes comprehension performance as well as the full caption condition. Moreover, it gains higher scores compared to other conditions for a new segment of the same video without any captions. The findings suggest that PSC can be incorporated into CALL systems as an alternative method to enhance L2 listening comprehension. [For full proceedings, see ED565087.]

The institution of professional standards for Adult ESL is one of the most influential developments in Canadian second language teacher education in recent years. As a major innovation in practice and values, this initiative has interesting implications not only for the content of the standards themselves, but also for the process by which the change is being accomplished. In particular, heterophilous communication (communication between individuals or bodies with different group affiliations) has played a significant role in both the definition and the diffusion of these standards. While some differences in approach may still be observed, in general a remarkable level of support has already been achieved and there is every reason to anticipate that the professional standards movement will continue contributing to the evolution of second language teacher education programs and to the profile of the profession cross the country.

A study investigated the role of comprehension of meaningful language input in young adults' second language learning, focusing on: (1) what kinds of measurement instruments and procedures can be used in tracking student gains in specific aspects of target language proficiency; (2) development of a reliable self-report scale capturing different vocabulary knowledge levels; and (3) use of introspection in exploring links between comprehension of meaning and acquisition of vocabulary. Subjects were 37 university students in 2 language classes, an experimental group using a comprehension-based approach and authentic texts and a control group using an integrated 4-skills approach and emphasizing grammar instruction. A series of tests were administered: baseline global language proficiency tests, two rational deletion cloze tests, a self-report of vocabulary knowledge, two measures of grammatical knowledge, and (in the comprehension-based class) an introspective task on vocabulary acquisition. Results indicate superior gains in the comprehension-based class in text comprehension and discourse processing, despite smaller gains in grammatical knowledge, suggesting that explicit grammar instruction is not needed to advance comprehension skills. However, accuracy in writing and speaking was found to be linked to grammar instruction. It is concluded that comprehension-based instruction develops receptive proficiency, but other gains appear idiosyncratic. (MSE)

A study investigated the role of comprehension of meaningful language input in young adults' second language learning, focusing on: (1) what kinds of measurement instruments and procedures can be used in tracking student gains in specific aspects of target language proficiency; (2) development of a reliable self-report scale capturing different vocabulary knowledge levels; and (3) use of introspection in exploring links between comprehension of meaning and acquisition of vocabulary. Subjects were 37 university students in 2 language classes, an experimental group using a comprehension-based approach and authentic texts and a control group using an integrated 4-skills approach and emphasizing grammar instruction. A series of tests were administered: baseline global language proficiency tests, two rational deletion cloze tests, a self-report of vocabulary knowledge, two measures of grammatical knowledge, and (in the comprehension-based class) an introspective task on vocabulary acquisition. Results indicate superior gains in the comprehension-based class in text comprehension and discourse processing, despite smaller gains in grammatical knowledge, suggesting that explicit grammar instruction is not needed to advance comprehension skills. However, accuracy in writing and speaking was found to be linked to grammar instruction. It is concluded that comprehension-based instruction develops receptive proficiency, but other gains appear idiosyncratic. (MSE)

A study investigated the role of comprehension of meaningful language input in young adults' second language learning, focusing on: (1) what kinds of measurement instruments and procedures can be used in tracking student gains in specific aspects of target language proficiency; (2) development of a reliable self-report scale capturing different vocabulary knowledge levels; and (3) use of introspection in exploring links between comprehension of meaning and acquisition of vocabulary. Subjects were 37 university students in 2 language classes, an experimental group using a comprehension-based approach and authentic texts and a control group using an integrated 4-skills approach and emphasizing grammar instruction. A series of tests were administered: baseline global language proficiency tests, two rational deletion cloze tests, a self-report of vocabulary knowledge, two measures of grammatical knowledge, and (in the comprehension-based class) an introspective task on vocabulary acquisition. Results indicate superior gains in the comprehension-based class in text comprehension and discourse processing, despite smaller gains in grammatical knowledge, suggesting that explicit grammar instruction is not needed to advance comprehension skills. However, accuracy in writing and speaking was found to be linked to grammar instruction. It is concluded that comprehension-based instruction develops receptive proficiency, but other gains appear idiosyncratic. (MSE)

A study investigated the role of comprehension of meaningful language input in young adults' second language learning, focusing on: (1) what kinds of measurement instruments and procedures can be used in tracking student gains in specific aspects of target language proficiency; (2) development of a reliable self-report scale capturing different vocabulary knowledge levels; and (3) use of introspection in exploring links between comprehension of meaning and acquisition of vocabulary. Subjects were 37 university students in 2 language classes, an experimental group using a comprehension-based approach and authentic texts and a control group using an integrated 4-skills approach and emphasizing grammar instruction. A series of tests were administered: baseline global language proficiency tests, two rational deletion cloze tests, a self-report of vocabulary knowledge, two measures of grammatical knowledge, and (in the comprehension-based class) an introspective task on vocabulary acquisition. Results indicate superior gains in the comprehension-based class in text comprehension and discourse processing, despite smaller gains in grammatical knowledge, suggesting that explicit grammar instruction is not needed to advance comprehension skills. However, accuracy in writing and speaking was found to be linked to grammar instruction. It is concluded that comprehension-based instruction develops receptive proficiency, but other gains appear idiosyncratic. (MSE)

This digest presents eight principles drawn from theory and research on second language acquisition and culturally sensitive instruction to guide teachers who work with linguistically and culturally diverse students. Each principle is accompanied by a brief explanation and suggestions for classroom techniques and activities. They are: (1) bilingualism is an asset and should be fostered; (2) there is an ebb and flow to children's bilingualism, and it is rare for both languages to be perfectly balanced; (3) there are culturally different patterns in language use; (4) for some bilingual children, code-switching is a normal language phenomenon; (5) children come to learn languages in many different ways; (6) language is used to communicate meaning; (7) language flourishes best in a language-rich environment; and (8) children should be encouraged to experiment with language. A brief bibliography is provided. (MSE)

Language learning, especially second language learning requires systematic practice and repetition. Students are introduced with the new words in class sessions and they practice them via traditional methods such as continuously writing the direct meaning of the word or using flash cards. Computers have the potential to bring more attractive and enjoyable features to instructional materials. This case study tries to contribute to the understanding of design, development and implication phases of computer-assisted language learning materials. Quantitative and qualitative methods were used. With regard to the dictionary page most of the students preferred to listen to the pronunciation of most of the words, but conflictingly almost none of the students tried to repeat the pronunciation of the words after listening. More than half of the students (72.7%) thought that practicing by doing activities (crossword puzzles) and interacting with the web based tool was joyful. The pace and understandability of its speech were positively perceived by the students. Technology like Ms-Agent can be useful especially for improving listening. Moreover, it can be used as an online assistant as students perceived the internet character as functional in guiding them.

This paper discusses the integration and effectiveness of blended learning for the development and assessment of listening skills in a second language. The development of oral abilities (listening and speaking) is one of the most challenging and neglected aspects of second language learning (Vandergrift & Goh 2012, Graham & Santos 2015). Listening comprehension work in particular is crucial in the early stages of second language acquisition, and, therefore, for "ab-initio language" students, for whom processing and decoding auditory input can be very challenging. In 2014 a set of online listening quizzes was created and integrated into two "ab-initio" Italian courses. The aim was to offer engaging, flexible listening comprehension practice and assessment, which would extend the students' learning experience, stimulate their learning motivation and allow for a better use of face-to-face teaching in the classroom environment. Having conceptualised listening as a process rather than a product we designed tasks to teach learners how to listen, rather than merely test their comprehension. The validity of the quizzes as a means for the development of listening skills and as a tool for formative and summative assessment was subjected to systematic analysis via an online student survey. The large amount of data collected reveals that the quizzes were a key element in the development of listening skills and the delivery mode did not only meet the students' learning needs but it was clearly preferred to in-class assessment.

This paper discusses the integration and effectiveness of blended learning for the development and assessment of listening skills in a second language. The development of oral abilities (listening and speaking) is one of the most challenging and neglected aspects of second language learning (Vandergrift & Goh 2012, Graham & Santos 2015). Listening comprehension work in particular is crucial in the early stages of second language acquisition, and, therefore, for "ab-initio language" students, for whom processing and decoding auditory input can be very challenging. In 2014 a set of online listening quizzes was created and integrated into two "ab-initio" Italian courses. The aim was to offer engaging, flexible listening comprehension practice and assessment, which would extend the students' learning experience, stimulate their learning motivation and allow for a better use of face-to-face teaching in the classroom environment. Having conceptualised listening as a process rather than a product we designed tasks to teach learners how to listen, rather than merely test their comprehension. The validity of the quizzes as a means for the development of listening skills and as a tool for formative and summative assessment was subjected to systematic analysis via an online student survey. The large amount of data collected reveals that the quizzes were a key element in the development of listening skills and the delivery mode did not only meet the students' learning needs but it was clearly preferred to in-class assessment.

The purpose of this project is to experimentally separate the influence of the first language from the effect of age of acquisition during second language learning. To this aim, the project will investigate the long-term effects of early language learning and language shift in international adoptees.

The purpose of this project is to experimentally separate the influence of the first language from the effect of age of acquisition during second language learning. To this aim, the project will investigate the long-term effects of early language learning and language shift in international adoptees.

The purpose of this project is to experimentally separate the influence of the first language from the effect of age of acquisition during second language learning. To this aim, the project will investigate the long-term effects of early language learning and language shift in international adoptees.

A study of bilingual development in preschool children had two components: (1) a followup of a previous study in which the English and Spanish language development of children in a high-quality bilingual preschool remained stable over time, and (2) a replication of the study with a different cohort. The original study found that native Spanish-speaking children in a bilingual preschool program and children not in the program had improved English and Spanish skills after one year, but the bilingual program participants had especially large gains in English. Followup showed that both groups continued significant gains in both languages during a second year, with the bilingual program children continuing to make larger gains in English. The replication sample was a similar number of children from the same community, similarly divided into bilingual program and control groups. Similar results emerged from this study. It is concluded that participation in a high-quality bilingual preschool program does promote development of both native and second language skills, does not impeded native language development, and significantly enhances second language learning. (Contains 12 references. Appended materials include charts and graphs of the two studies' findings.) (MSE)

The collection of readings is designed to provide special education teachers in New York City (New York) public schools with information about and techniques for teaching Limited-English-Proficient (LEP) students. Articles address these topics: the demographics and trends of LEP populations; Hispanic student achievement; meeting the needs of culturally diverse exceptional students; bilingual special education; English-as-a-Second-Language (ESL) in special education; disabilities and language acquisition; language-minority students and special education; language instruction for mild, moderate, and severe disabilities; behavioral diversity; empowering culturally diverse students with learning problems; misconceptions about second language learning; cooperative learning and diverse language backgrounds; portfolios and alternative assessment methods; making the reading/writing connection; sheltered English; ESL through content-area instruction; mathematics instruction; science instruction; computers for story-writing; academic achievement in a second language; multicultural activities; working with culturally diverse parents; parent involvement; why some parents don't come to school; intergenerational literacy; and the role of school paraprofessionals. (MSE)

This bibliography contains some 2,000 articles on empirical investigation and theoretical considerations covering the topic of students' conceptions entered before September 1990. PUblications in journals, books, working papers, and contributions to conferences are included. English, German, and French publications, and ones in other languages are contained in the bibliography. The bibliography is divided into nine groups: (1) general considerations concerning research in this area; (2) everyday notions and scientific notions; (3) development of notions in the history of science as compared to development of notions of individuals; (4) language and notions; (5) methods of investigations; (6) investigations of students' notions; (7) instruction taking students' notions into account; (8) investigations of teachers notions; and (9) notions and teacher training. The entries include the author's name, year of publication, title, place of publication, and a set of keywords that help the reader to categorize the articles. Keywords indicate the group of the article (1-9), physics, chemistry, or biology, and further areas or concepts. Articles dealing with conceptions of the teaching and learning process, conceptions of science, conceptions on the use of science for technology and society, and empirical studies in which gender differences are investigated are also indicated by keywords. An author index, an appendix that contains publications added during the preparation of the present edition from October to December 1990, a second appendix that contains entries from another bibliography not listed in this bibliography, and a list of keywords are included. (KR)

This guidebook is intended to assist the classroom teacher in developing assessments for English language learners (ELLs). More specifically, it will: help the teacher to determine whether a student may be an ELL; measure native-language proficiency or the English language proficiency of an ELL; determine initial instructional placement for an ELL in mathematics or reading; measure the academic achievement of an ELL in their native language or in the English language; and provide information on the development of databases to be used in monitoring student performance on the assessments administered. This guidebook is intended for classroom teachers who are currently challenged in determining criteria to be included in the development of performance-based assessments for their ELLs. The responsibility of developing the tasks is that of the teacher. The book includes various checklists, scoring rubrics, sample performance-based tasks, and scoring sheets. In addition to an extensive bibliography and a comprehensive guide to resources and assistance centers in the Northwest United States, there are three appendices: a reader's own scoring guide; a six-trait analytical writing assessment model; and an E.A.R.--a conceptual framework for the traits of competent oral communication. (Contains 53 references.) (KFT)

The focus on communicative competence in foreign language teaching has taken little account of the process by which students learn to communicate effectively. Affective and cognitive concerns must be considered in the implementation of behavioral objectives in addition to recognition and respect of the target culture's values and behaviors if constructive learning is to be fostered. In such an environment, the learner takes control of his own learning after an initial period of high-degree teacher initiative. Current research indicates that differences in language aptitude result in differences in the extent to which students can acquire second language skills dependent upon active instruction, whereas motivational differences influence the extent to which the student acquires skills to be used in communicational situations. This "integrative" motive to acquire a second language for purposes of interacting with the foreign language community requires a particular combination of attitudinal-motivational components to facilitate linguistic exchange, in which the focus is on linguistic production. (Author/DJD)

The purpose of this project is to experimentally separate the influence of the first language from the effect of age of acquisition during second language learning. To this aim, the project will investigate the long-term effects of early language learning and language shift in international adoptees.

The purpose of this project is to experimentally separate the influence of the first language from the effect of age of acquisition during second language learning. To this aim, the project will investigate the long-term effects of early language learning and language shift in international adoptees.

The question asked in this paper is whether children below the age of puberty who acquire a second language within the cultural context of that language acquire it in anything resembling the same developmental order that native speakers of the language acquire it. A seven-year-old Japanese boy's development in English negation structure provides the basis for a comparison with negation usage by peer-group native speakers. The study reveals similarities between the development of both and suggests a strong influence by the peer-group native speakers on the speech of the second language learner. The implication is that any English-as-a-second-language classes involving children below the age of puberty should have maximum peer involvement, peer interaction, and teacher involvement. (VM)

The question asked in this paper is whether children below the age of puberty who acquire a second language within the cultural context of that language acquire it in anything resembling the same developmental order that native speakers of the language acquire it. A seven-year-old Japanese boy's development in English negation structure provides the basis for a comparison with negation usage by peer-group native speakers. The study reveals similarities between the development of both and suggests a strong influence by the peer-group native speakers on the speech of the second language learner. The implication is that any English-as-a-second-language classes involving children below the age of puberty should have maximum peer involvement, peer interaction, and teacher involvement. (VM)

The question asked in this paper is whether children below the age of puberty who acquire a second language within the cultural context of that language acquire it in anything resembling the same developmental order that native speakers of the language acquire it. A seven-year-old Japanese boy's development in English negation structure provides the basis for a comparison with negation usage by peer-group native speakers. The study reveals similarities between the development of both and suggests a strong influence by the peer-group native speakers on the speech of the second language learner. The implication is that any English-as-a-second-language classes involving children below the age of puberty should have maximum peer involvement, peer interaction, and teacher involvement. (VM)

A case study of second language development in a college student focused on comparative changes in the development of oral and written skills over a period of two years. The subject was a Russian student of English as a second language who had recently arrived in the United States. Errors and syntactic maturity were analyzed in writing samples during this period, and compared with results of oral interviews used for placement. Results indicate that errors decreased and syntactic maturity increased in the same way that occurs in a first language. It is believed that time was a critical factor in self-monitoring, so errors would decrease faster in writing when more time was available. However, errors decreased in the subject's oral expression at a faster rate than in his writing, supporting the hypothesis that adults use the language monitoring function to a greater degree than do younger students. Contains 12 references. (MSE)

The manual provides a framework for two days of training in English-as-a-Second-Language (ESL) instructional methods for monolingual special education teachers at the early childhood level in New York City (New York) schools. The materials help teachers without ESL certification provide mandated ESL services to Limited-English-Proficient (LEP) students in all special education settings. An introductory section outlines the underlying philosophy, approach to instructional programming, and suggestions for classroom management. A second section outlines the design and objectives for the two-day program and offers specific suggestions for early childhood teaching. Subsequent sections detail the content of each day's program, including background on bilingual and ESL general and special education programs, ESL assessment techniques in special education, methods for facilitating language development, ESL instruction through art/music/multicultural literature, development of a cooperative relationship with culturally diverse parents and caregivers, different approaches to ESL instruction, adaptations and strategies for ESL in the content areas, individualized education programs, sample ESL lessons, and the teacher-paraprofessional partnership. A reference section contains an ESL bibliography, list of educational services for LEP students, notes on Bloom's taxonomy and LEP students, notes on curricular and instructional adaptations for ESL in special education. (MSE)

This study examined the writing development of two language minority students over 3 school years, in particular, students' writing samples in the form of dialogue journals. Analyses focus on the function of content features (pragmatics) in their writing, the development of mechanical control (surface features), and the change in content over time. Students' attitudes toward and perceptions about writing and the degree of correspondence with actual writing were also of interest. Two fifth grade students whose first language was Spanish and who were receiving literacy instruction in English served as subjects. The study's design involved collecting writing samples in the form of dialogue journals, interviewing the students, and videotaping students during a journal writing session. Results support the notion that children should have primary language support to facilitate second language literacy acquisition. Important differences in the students' development include mean length of entry, growth toward controlling the mechanical features of their writing, and initial reliance on the Spanish language as a basis for inventing spelling in English. Interview data showed that one student focused on meaning and process while the other student expressed concern over spelling and the skills aspect of learning to write. Dialogue journal evaluation sheets for surface features and content features, and a dialogue journal interview are appended. (JP)

This study describes the kindergarten to level 3 curriculum of a bilingual-bicultural education program at Nestor Elementary School in Imperial Beach, California, under E.S.E.A. Title VII. It discusses the specific program environment and classroom organization used to implement the curriculum. The curriculum is divided into four main strands: native language, second language, concept development, and cultural awareness. The two investigators were teachers working as a team integrating the four strands at each grade level (kindergarten to three) during the period 1969 to 1975. The program has among its major aims the development of coordinate bilingualism not only for the Spanish-speaking Mexican-American student but for his native English-speaking peer as well. The major conclusions reached in this study are: (1) a strong commitment to a maintenance philosophy of bilingual education approached in a team-teaching manner has created the environment for the Spanish language that allows coordinate bilingualism to develop; (2) the two separate language environments and models have encouraged students to use the languages independently of each other, thus producing a higher degree of bilingualism; (3) strong native language development has been shown to be the key to second language acquisition; and (4) Anglo students have become progressively more bilingual. (CFM)

A discussion of second language learning among language minority students looks at the increasing multiculturalism of the U.S. classroom and a number of related issues, including the relationship between first language development and second language learning, academic language needs, and literacy development, and concern about the appropriateness of standardized testing for linguistically and culturally diverse student populations. It then gives an overview of developments in and principles of integrated language and content (ILC) instruction, or the teaching of content in a second language. Finally, language development is examined in the context of extended school day programs. Basic principles are outlined, and simple strategies for promoting such development through language usage and organization of activities are offered. ILC is seen as a promising technique for additive language development in extended school-day programs because content can be not just academic, but also recreational. Implications for immigrant children in Dutch extended school-day programs are discussed briefly. (Contains 20 references.) A set of strategies and sample activities for ILC instruction in art, music, and physical education, including lesson plans, is presented separately. (MSE)

The Ontario Curriculum Documents from 2003 Exemplars - Samples of Student Work A Resource for Teachers ESL Level 4 From the Ontario Ministry of Education.

The Ontario Curriculum Documents from 2003 Exemplars - Samples of Student Work A Resource for Teachers ESL Level 4 From the Ontario Ministry of Education.

This project examines novel word learning and familiar word recognition when code-switching is present in two groups of school-aged second language learners. One group of children are native English speakers learning Spanish as an L2 in the United States, and the second group of children are native Spanish speakers learning English in Spain.

This project examines novel word learning and familiar word recognition when code-switching is present in two groups of school-aged second language learners. One group of children are native English speakers learning Spanish as an L2 in the United States, and the second group of children are native Spanish speakers learning English in Spain.

This project was designed as part of the Basic Skills Resource Center component to identify effects of training in the use of learning strategies on the development of English-as-a-Second-Language skills. High school students from mixed foreign language backgrounds were randomly assigned to one of two strategy treatment groups, or to a control group. Training in a natural teaching environment was presented for one hour daily over an eight day period in three language tasks: vocabulary, listening, and speaking. Results from the training are thoroughly discussed, as are implications for classroom instruction and future research.

The development of effective second and foreign (L2) language learning materials needs to be grounded in two types of theories: (a) a theory of language and language use and (b) a theory of language learning. Both are equally important, insofar as an effective learning environment requires an understanding of the knowledge, skills, and abilities that are being targeted as well as an idea of how learner development progresses. Although the author and colleagues have previously provided a theoretical basis for the construct of L2 pragmatic ability, and thus a theory of language use, the current paper focuses on learner development, particularly on the theoretical orientation towards L2 pragmatic learning. Given this superordinate goal, the paper will briefly review different theoretical paradigms that have been employed in adult L2 pragmatics development research. In the first part of the paper, I will provide an overview of the cognitive, socially oriented, and emergentist perspectives used in research on L2 pragmatic development. Then, based on the different ontological perspectives, I will discuss the affordances and challenges of applying a theoretical perspective to designing L2 pragmatic learning environments, drawing upon the example of the cognitively oriented information processing theory.

This paper investigates the potential relationship of Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) to gesture and second language learning. It is asserted that the ZPD is both a tool and a result, not a tool for result; it is both product and process at the same time. The process of learning a new language/culture in the case of a person who is living in a country where the second language is dominant is at least in part a transformational process. In this process, there is an unavoidable element of play and drama, where the individual struggles to "play" him or herself in the new language and culture. Gestures are an integral part of this inevitable drama and play acting. Gesture is in general highly linguistic in nature, a finding that needs to be considered in conjunction with verbal accounts of language learning. This study documents many cases in which gestures become lexical items repeated by both interactants as the interlocutors scaffold each other in their efforts to co-construct meaning. Clearly gestures are an important means of enhancing communication and facilitating comprehension, and are therefore a necessary part of sound pedagogical practice. (Contains 15 references.) (KFT)

This paper investigates the potential relationship of Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) to gesture and second language learning. It is asserted that the ZPD is both a tool and a result, not a tool for result; it is both product and process at the same time. The process of learning a new language/culture in the case of a person who is living in a country where the second language is dominant is at least in part a transformational process. In this process, there is an unavoidable element of play and drama, where the individual struggles to "play" him or herself in the new language and culture. Gestures are an integral part of this inevitable drama and play acting. Gesture is in general highly linguistic in nature, a finding that needs to be considered in conjunction with verbal accounts of language learning. This study documents many cases in which gestures become lexical items repeated by both interactants as the interlocutors scaffold each other in their efforts to co-construct meaning. Clearly gestures are an important means of enhancing communication and facilitating comprehension, and are therefore a necessary part of sound pedagogical practice. (Contains 15 references.) (KFT)

The origins and design of a framework for Japanese second language instruction and curriculum development, created for use in international schools in Japan, are described. The effort was part of a Japanese Language Project undertaken by the Japanese Council for International Schools and funded by the Japanese Ministry of Education. The guiding principles included: integration of language forms and communicative functions; purposeful use of language; authentic language materials; priority of spoken language; incorporation of learning strategies as well as content; deliberate focus on form to support development of language use; cyclical and developmental introduction of language; support and enhancement of the learner's cognitive, affective, and cultural development; experiential content reflecting learner needs and interests; creation of connections between school and the world beyond, including skills for independent learning; learning opportunities reflecting learners' differences; reflection on and development of language within a Japanese cultural context; development of an understanding of the culture of the Japanese community; effort to increase friendship and cooperation with Japanese people; and deepened understanding of the learner's own language and culture. Contains 21 references. (MSE)

In 1986-87, the New York State Education Department's Bureau of Bilingual Education provided incentive grants to three New York City Board of Education's Office of Bilingual Education projects whose common goal was to improve instructional quality in schools that the state Comprehensive Assessment Report (CAR) had identified as having low student performance levels. The Language Development Support Systems provided instruction in computer literacy and English as a second language (ESL) to two schools' third- and eighth-grade language minority students not entitled to bilingual education. The program also provided in-service training to ESL teachers in the two schools. The Intensive Second Language Development for CAR Schools provided monthly citywide workshops for ESL coordinators, special education coordinators, and curriculum and instructional personnel at CAR schools and, when requested, for classroom teachers. The Curriculum Specialists Project recruited teams of bilingual teachers with curriculum development experience to work part-time to develop Chinese, Spanish, and French/Creole native language arts curricula for grades three to eight. The extent to which each program met its stated objectives and the recommendations for program improvement are outlined. (Author/MSE)

Little empirical research has examined the cause of language shift or the factors related to the heritage language (HL) development of language minority groups. This study investigates the factors that facilitate or inhibit the HL development of second-generation Korean Americans, with a focus on adolescent HL learners, who go through phases in the development of their identity, ethnic identity, and their attitudes toward HL development and HL speakers, which are shaped during these phases. Most of the U.S.-born Korean-American high school students who participated in this study were English dominant and preferred to speak in English. The majority of participants had positive attitudes toward maintaining or developing their HL and wanted to develop their HL to have a closer relationship with their family, to be able to communicate with Korean speakers, to understand Korean culture, and to expand their career opportunities. Findings also showed, however, that HL maintenance or development is a challenging task in the U.S., and that language shift to the dominant language of the country was evident. The following areas of recommendations are discussed: (1) Maximize Comprehensible HL Input; (2) Minimize Anxiety; (3) Develop Good HL Programs; (4) Provide a Variety of HL Reading Materials; and (5) Maximize Informal Language Learning. The results of this study can be used for planning educational programs that take into account the needs and resources of immigrant families, as well as for informing the public, preservice teachers, and educators about the value of maintaining and developing one's HL.

Despite a strong intuitive sense held by instructors that feedback practices can help scaffold L2 writers' composition processes a number of questions remain concerning the manner best suited to deliver this feedback and its ultimate impact on literacy development. This paper presents findings from on an eight-month longitudinal ethnographic case study of five international Japanese undergraduate students and their efforts to navigate the writing requirements of their content courses at a large Canadian university. While confirming the importance of instructor based feedback practices and their potential as valuable language learning experiences, findings from this research also highlight language learners' perceived importance of "alternative sources of feedback" for their L2 writing development. Friends, roommates, and writing center tutors amongst others, were seen as valuable sources of advice on writing that could compensate for perceived problems with content instructor's feedback while offering feedback opportunities which were more closely associated to students ideal representation of this pedagogic tool. Implications focus on the advantages of widening our focus when understanding of feedback practices to also include paying closer attention to the impact of the "invisible partners" which also help shape students' literacy development and the bridges that might be built between these and more formal modes of instruction. (Contains 1 table, 2 figures, and 5 footnotes.)

Despite a strong intuitive sense held by instructors that feedback practices can help scaffold L2 writers' composition processes a number of questions remain concerning the manner best suited to deliver this feedback and its ultimate impact on literacy development. This paper presents findings from on an eight-month longitudinal ethnographic case study of five international Japanese undergraduate students and their efforts to navigate the writing requirements of their content courses at a large Canadian university. While confirming the importance of instructor based feedback practices and their potential as valuable language learning experiences, findings from this research also highlight language learners' perceived importance of "alternative sources of feedback" for their L2 writing development. Friends, roommates, and writing center tutors amongst others, were seen as valuable sources of advice on writing that could compensate for perceived problems with content instructor's feedback while offering feedback opportunities which were more closely associated to students ideal representation of this pedagogic tool. Implications focus on the advantages of widening our focus when understanding of feedback practices to also include paying closer attention to the impact of the "invisible partners" which also help shape students' literacy development and the bridges that might be built between these and more formal modes of instruction. (Contains 1 table, 2 figures, and 5 footnotes.)

Despite a strong intuitive sense held by instructors that feedback practices can help scaffold L2 writers' composition processes a number of questions remain concerning the manner best suited to deliver this feedback and its ultimate impact on literacy development. This paper presents findings from on an eight-month longitudinal ethnographic case study of five international Japanese undergraduate students and their efforts to navigate the writing requirements of their content courses at a large Canadian university. While confirming the importance of instructor based feedback practices and their potential as valuable language learning experiences, findings from this research also highlight language learners' perceived importance of "alternative sources of feedback" for their L2 writing development. Friends, roommates, and writing center tutors amongst others, were seen as valuable sources of advice on writing that could compensate for perceived problems with content instructor's feedback while offering feedback opportunities which were more closely associated to students ideal representation of this pedagogic tool. Implications focus on the advantages of widening our focus when understanding of feedback practices to also include paying closer attention to the impact of the "invisible partners" which also help shape students' literacy development and the bridges that might be built between these and more formal modes of instruction. (Contains 1 table, 2 figures, and 5 footnotes.)

Despite a strong intuitive sense held by instructors that feedback practices can help scaffold L2 writers' composition processes a number of questions remain concerning the manner best suited to deliver this feedback and its ultimate impact on literacy development. This paper presents findings from on an eight-month longitudinal ethnographic case study of five international Japanese undergraduate students and their efforts to navigate the writing requirements of their content courses at a large Canadian university. While confirming the importance of instructor based feedback practices and their potential as valuable language learning experiences, findings from this research also highlight language learners' perceived importance of "alternative sources of feedback" for their L2 writing development. Friends, roommates, and writing center tutors amongst others, were seen as valuable sources of advice on writing that could compensate for perceived problems with content instructor's feedback while offering feedback opportunities which were more closely associated to students ideal representation of this pedagogic tool. Implications focus on the advantages of widening our focus when understanding of feedback practices to also include paying closer attention to the impact of the "invisible partners" which also help shape students' literacy development and the bridges that might be built between these and more formal modes of instruction. (Contains 1 table, 2 figures, and 5 footnotes.)

This document was written to support the work of Migrant and Seasonal Head Start (MSHS) programs. The message provided is straightforward: we can meet the challenge of supporting first and second language development in preschool children. This paper is organized around four questions: (1) Can we facilitate children's acquisition of English without the loss of their first language? (2) How can we understand the how and when of developmental processes related to first and second language acquisition? (3) Does it matter how adults use English and children's home language when they talk to children? (4) When we continue development of the first language and facilitate English, what does it look like day-to-day? The paper reviews responses from the field, compares notes on the research literature, and presents both general guidelines and examples of specific practices that appear to be the most promising. [This report was produced by the Academy for Educational Development (AED) Center for Early Care and Education.]

The present study investigated second language (L2) learners' acquisition of automatic word recognition and the development of L2 orthographic representation in the mental lexicon. Participants in the study were Japanese university students enrolled in a compulsory course involving a weekly 30-minute sustained silent reading (SSR) activity with graded readers for 12 weeks. They completed the masked form-priming lexical decision task (LDT) before and after the in-class SSR activity. Results showed that participants exhibited signs of increasing automaticity of L2 word recognition (analyzed with the coefficient of variation), but could not develop their L2 orthographic representation (analyzed with the pattern of priming effects in the masked form-priming LDT). These findings suggest that automatization does not necessarily entail the development of orthographic representation, that is, the acquisition of automatic word recognition and the development of orthographic representation do not occur simultaneously. Instead, their development is asymmetrical.

The present study investigated second language (L2) learners' acquisition of automatic word recognition and the development of L2 orthographic representation in the mental lexicon. Participants in the study were Japanese university students enrolled in a compulsory course involving a weekly 30-minute sustained silent reading (SSR) activity with graded readers for 12 weeks. They completed the masked form-priming lexical decision task (LDT) before and after the in-class SSR activity. Results showed that participants exhibited signs of increasing automaticity of L2 word recognition (analyzed with the coefficient of variation), but could not develop their L2 orthographic representation (analyzed with the pattern of priming effects in the masked form-priming LDT). These findings suggest that automatization does not necessarily entail the development of orthographic representation, that is, the acquisition of automatic word recognition and the development of orthographic representation do not occur simultaneously. Instead, their development is asymmetrical.