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INTRODUCTION Metacognition is often defined as “cognition about cognition”, referring to individuals’ awareness and understanding of their own thought processes (Flavell, 1979). In educational science, metacognition usually encompasses three components: (a) metacognitive knowledge related to what learners know about cognition and their own learning; (b) metacognitive skills referring to the regulation of cognition and the use of planning, monitoring, control, and evaluation strategies; (c) metacognitive experiences, which are the feelings and judgments associated with cognitive activity (Zohar & Barzilai, 2013). Other models place greater emphasis on the distinction between metacognitive monitoring and control, as in cognitive (neuro)science. While the first refers to assessing or judging the state of one’s own cognitive activity, the second refers to using these assessments and judgments to guide behavior or strategy selection (Fleming & Lau, 2014; Nelson, 1996). Metacognition is also frequently studied within the self-regulated learning framework and is considered one of its core dimensions, alongside cognitive and motivational components (Panadero, 2017). Furthermore, other models associate metacognition with executive functions as a high-level cognitive process (Roebers, 2017) or even theories of mind as both involve reflecting on mental states (Kuhn, 2000). A considerable number of studies have examined the relation between metacognition and academic achievement using both correlational and intervention approaches. The numerous existing meta-analyses in the field consistently report positive and relatively strong effects throughout development (e.g., de Boer et al., 2018; Eberhart et al., 2025; Ohtani & Hisasaka, 2018). Moreover, it is often claimed that metacognitive interventions are particularly beneficial for vulnerable students, especially students from disadvantaged socioeconomic backgrounds (de Boer et al., 2018; Education Endowment Foundation, 2018). Yet, surprisingly, only a few studies have primarily focused on the effect of SES on metacognitive development (e.g., Callan et al., 2016; Pappas et al., 2003; Wang, 1993). This has led to the topic being considered under-researched (Muijs & Bokhove, 2020), unlike other cognitive domains such as executive function and language development, which have been the focus of numerous meta-analyses (e.g., Korous et al., 2020; Lawson et al., 2018; Rakesh et al., 2025). However, given the great interest in metacognition in education, and that SES is frequently measured and used as a control variable in this field, it is likely that more relevant data could be retrieved from studies that did not focus on this specific question. Considering the importance of thoroughly understanding the mechanisms behind educational inequalities — one of the most significant challenges facing education systems (OECD, 2023) — and early evidence suggesting that metacognition may partly explain them (Koğar, 2021; Maximino-Pinheiro et al., 2024), the effect of SES on metacognition warrants further investigation. Thus, we aim to conduct the first systematic review and meta-analysis synthesizing all relevant empirical studies to quantify the association between SES and metacognition from infancy to university, and to test the potential moderators of this association. We are particularly interested in whether this relation varies by demographics, the specific SES and metacognition components considered, the types of measurement used, whether the SES–metacognition association is the primary focus of the study, and various study and sample characteristics. RESEARCH QUESTIONS - Primary research questions We aim to address the following primary question: (Q1) What is the direction and overall strength of the association between SES and metacognition? - Secondary research questions In addition, we are interested in whether the relation between SES and metacognition varies with: (Q2) demographics, including age, gender and ethnicity; (Q3) the SES component considered (including but not limited to education, occupation, income and composite measures); (Q4) the metacognitive component assessed (including but not limited to metacognitive knowledge, skills, experiences and composite measures) and the type of measurement (including but not limited to behavioral tasks, observations, self- and hetero-report questionnaires); (Q5) whether the investigation of the SES–metacognition association is the primary focus of the study or not. (Q6) several study and sample characteristics to test for potential moderating roles, including but not limited to type of publication (i.e., peer-reviewed or grey literature), type of association (i.e., raw association or adjusted association controlling for other variables), year of publication, country, sample size, intended sample SES (including but not limited to low-SES or “at-risk” participants, middle-SES, high-SES or diverse sample), SES distribution, age distribution, gender ratio, ethnicity ratio, and study design (i.e., single time-point measure, cross-sectional or longitudinal approach).

INTRODUCTION Metacognition is often defined as “cognition about cognition”, referring to individuals’ awareness and understanding of their own thought processes (Flavell, 1979). In educational science, metacognition usually encompasses three components: (a) metacognitive knowledge related to what learners know about cognition and their own learning; (b) metacognitive skills referring to the regulation of cognition and the use of planning, monitoring, control, and evaluation strategies; (c) metacognitive experiences, which are the feelings and judgments associated with cognitive activity (Zohar & Barzilai, 2013). Other models place greater emphasis on the distinction between metacognitive monitoring and control, as in cognitive (neuro)science. While the first refers to assessing or judging the state of one’s own cognitive activity, the second refers to using these assessments and judgments to guide behavior or strategy selection (Fleming & Lau, 2014; Nelson, 1996). Metacognition is also frequently studied within the self-regulated learning framework and is considered one of its core dimensions, alongside cognitive and motivational components (Panadero, 2017). Furthermore, other models associate metacognition with executive functions as a high-level cognitive process (Roebers, 2017) or even theories of mind as both involve reflecting on mental states (Kuhn, 2000). A considerable number of studies have examined the relation between metacognition and academic achievement using both correlational and intervention approaches. The numerous existing meta-analyses in the field consistently report positive and relatively strong effects throughout development (e.g., de Boer et al., 2018; Eberhart et al., 2025; Ohtani & Hisasaka, 2018). Moreover, it is often claimed that metacognitive interventions are particularly beneficial for vulnerable students, especially students from disadvantaged socioeconomic backgrounds (de Boer et al., 2018; Education Endowment Foundation, 2018). Yet, surprisingly, only a few studies have primarily focused on the effect of SES on metacognitive development (e.g., Callan et al., 2016; Pappas et al., 2003; Wang, 1993). This has led to the topic being considered under-researched (Muijs & Bokhove, 2020), unlike other cognitive domains such as executive function and language development, which have been the focus of numerous meta-analyses (e.g., Korous et al., 2020; Lawson et al., 2018; Rakesh et al., 2025). However, given the great interest in metacognition in education, and that SES is frequently measured and used as a control variable in this field, it is likely that more relevant data could be retrieved from studies that did not focus on this specific question. Considering the importance of thoroughly understanding the mechanisms behind educational inequalities — one of the most significant challenges facing education systems (OECD, 2023) — and early evidence suggesting that metacognition may partly explain them (Koğar, 2021; Maximino-Pinheiro et al., 2024), the effect of SES on metacognition warrants further investigation. Thus, we aim to conduct the first systematic review and meta-analysis synthesizing all relevant empirical studies to quantify the association between SES and metacognition from infancy to university, and to test the potential moderators of this association. We are particularly interested in whether this relation varies by demographics, the specific SES and metacognition components considered, the types of measurement used, whether the SES–metacognition association is the primary focus of the study, and various study and sample characteristics. RESEARCH QUESTIONS - Primary research questions We aim to address the following primary question: (Q1) What is the direction and overall strength of the association between SES and metacognition? - Secondary research questions In addition, we are interested in whether the relation between SES and metacognition varies with: (Q2) demographics, including age, gender and ethnicity; (Q3) the SES component considered (including but not limited to education, occupation, income and composite measures); (Q4) the metacognitive component assessed (including but not limited to metacognitive knowledge, skills, experiences and composite measures) and the type of measurement (including but not limited to behavioral tasks, observations, self- and hetero-report questionnaires); (Q5) whether the investigation of the SES–metacognition association is the primary focus of the study or not. (Q6) several study and sample characteristics to test for potential moderating roles, including but not limited to type of publication (i.e., peer-reviewed or grey literature), type of association (i.e., raw association or adjusted association controlling for other variables), year of publication, country, sample size, intended sample SES (including but not limited to low-SES or “at-risk” participants, middle-SES, high-SES or diverse sample), SES distribution, age distribution, gender ratio, ethnicity ratio, and study design (i.e., single time-point measure, cross-sectional or longitudinal approach).

INTRODUCTION Metacognition is often defined as “cognition about cognition”, referring to individuals’ awareness and understanding of their own thought processes (Flavell, 1979). In educational science, metacognition usually encompasses three components: (a) metacognitive knowledge related to what learners know about cognition and their own learning; (b) metacognitive skills referring to the regulation of cognition and the use of planning, monitoring, control, and evaluation strategies; (c) metacognitive experiences, which are the feelings and judgments associated with cognitive activity (Zohar & Barzilai, 2013). Other models place greater emphasis on the distinction between metacognitive monitoring and control, as in cognitive (neuro)science. While the first refers to assessing or judging the state of one’s own cognitive activity, the second refers to using these assessments and judgments to guide behavior or strategy selection (Fleming & Lau, 2014; Nelson, 1996). Metacognition is also frequently studied within the self-regulated learning framework and is considered one of its core dimensions, alongside cognitive and motivational components (Panadero, 2017). Furthermore, other models associate metacognition with executive functions as a high-level cognitive process (Roebers, 2017) or even theories of mind as both involve reflecting on mental states (Kuhn, 2000). A considerable number of studies have examined the relation between metacognition and academic achievement using both correlational and intervention approaches. The numerous existing meta-analyses in the field consistently report positive and relatively strong effects throughout development (e.g., de Boer et al., 2018; Eberhart et al., 2025; Ohtani & Hisasaka, 2018). Moreover, it is often claimed that metacognitive interventions are particularly beneficial for vulnerable students, especially students from disadvantaged socioeconomic backgrounds (de Boer et al., 2018; Education Endowment Foundation, 2018). Yet, surprisingly, only a few studies have primarily focused on the effect of SES on metacognitive development (e.g., Callan et al., 2016; Pappas et al., 2003; Wang, 1993). This has led to the topic being considered under-researched (Muijs & Bokhove, 2020), unlike other cognitive domains such as executive function and language development, which have been the focus of numerous meta-analyses (e.g., Korous et al., 2020; Lawson et al., 2018; Rakesh et al., 2025). However, given the great interest in metacognition in education, and that SES is frequently measured and used as a control variable in this field, it is likely that more relevant data could be retrieved from studies that did not focus on this specific question. Considering the importance of thoroughly understanding the mechanisms behind educational inequalities — one of the most significant challenges facing education systems (OECD, 2023) — and early evidence suggesting that metacognition may partly explain them (Koğar, 2021; Maximino-Pinheiro et al., 2024), the effect of SES on metacognition warrants further investigation. Thus, we aim to conduct the first systematic review and meta-analysis synthesizing all relevant empirical studies to quantify the association between SES and metacognition from infancy to university, and to test the potential moderators of this association. We are particularly interested in whether this relation varies by demographics, the specific SES and metacognition components considered, the types of measurement used, whether the SES–metacognition association is the primary focus of the study, and various study and sample characteristics. RESEARCH QUESTIONS - Primary research questions We aim to address the following primary question: (Q1) What is the direction and overall strength of the association between SES and metacognition? - Secondary research questions In addition, we are interested in whether the relation between SES and metacognition varies with: (Q2) demographics, including age, gender and ethnicity; (Q3) the SES component considered (including but not limited to education, occupation, income and composite measures); (Q4) the metacognitive component assessed (including but not limited to metacognitive knowledge, skills, experiences and composite measures) and the type of measurement (including but not limited to behavioral tasks, observations, self- and hetero-report questionnaires); (Q5) whether the investigation of the SES–metacognition association is the primary focus of the study or not. (Q6) several study and sample characteristics to test for potential moderating roles, including but not limited to type of publication (i.e., peer-reviewed or grey literature), type of association (i.e., raw association or adjusted association controlling for other variables), year of publication, country, sample size, intended sample SES (including but not limited to low-SES or “at-risk” participants, middle-SES, high-SES or diverse sample), SES distribution, age distribution, gender ratio, ethnicity ratio, and study design (i.e., single time-point measure, cross-sectional or longitudinal approach).

INTRODUCTION Metacognition is often defined as “cognition about cognition”, referring to individuals’ awareness and understanding of their own thought processes (Flavell, 1979). In educational science, metacognition usually encompasses three components: (a) metacognitive knowledge related to what learners know about cognition and their own learning; (b) metacognitive skills referring to the regulation of cognition and the use of planning, monitoring, control, and evaluation strategies; (c) metacognitive experiences, which are the feelings and judgments associated with cognitive activity (Zohar & Barzilai, 2013). Other models place greater emphasis on the distinction between metacognitive monitoring and control, as in cognitive (neuro)science. While the first refers to assessing or judging the state of one’s own cognitive activity, the second refers to using these assessments and judgments to guide behavior or strategy selection (Fleming & Lau, 2014; Nelson, 1996). Metacognition is also frequently studied within the self-regulated learning framework and is considered one of its core dimensions, alongside cognitive and motivational components (Panadero, 2017). Furthermore, other models associate metacognition with executive functions as a high-level cognitive process (Roebers, 2017) or even theories of mind as both involve reflecting on mental states (Kuhn, 2000). A considerable number of studies have examined the relation between metacognition and academic achievement using both correlational and intervention approaches. The numerous existing meta-analyses in the field consistently report positive and relatively strong effects throughout development (e.g., de Boer et al., 2018; Eberhart et al., 2025; Ohtani & Hisasaka, 2018). Moreover, it is often claimed that metacognitive interventions are particularly beneficial for vulnerable students, especially students from disadvantaged socioeconomic backgrounds (de Boer et al., 2018; Education Endowment Foundation, 2018). Yet, surprisingly, only a few studies have primarily focused on the effect of SES on metacognitive development (e.g., Callan et al., 2016; Pappas et al., 2003; Wang, 1993). This has led to the topic being considered under-researched (Muijs & Bokhove, 2020), unlike other cognitive domains such as executive function and language development, which have been the focus of numerous meta-analyses (e.g., Korous et al., 2020; Lawson et al., 2018; Rakesh et al., 2025). However, given the great interest in metacognition in education, and that SES is frequently measured and used as a control variable in this field, it is likely that more relevant data could be retrieved from studies that did not focus on this specific question. Considering the importance of thoroughly understanding the mechanisms behind educational inequalities — one of the most significant challenges facing education systems (OECD, 2023) — and early evidence suggesting that metacognition may partly explain them (Koğar, 2021; Maximino-Pinheiro et al., 2024), the effect of SES on metacognition warrants further investigation. Thus, we aim to conduct the first systematic review and meta-analysis synthesizing all relevant empirical studies to quantify the association between SES and metacognition from infancy to university, and to test the potential moderators of this association. We are particularly interested in whether this relation varies by demographics, the specific SES and metacognition components considered, the types of measurement used, whether the SES–metacognition association is the primary focus of the study, and various study and sample characteristics. RESEARCH QUESTIONS - Primary research questions We aim to address the following primary question: (Q1) What is the direction and overall strength of the association between SES and metacognition? - Secondary research questions In addition, we are interested in whether the relation between SES and metacognition varies with: (Q2) demographics, including age, gender and ethnicity; (Q3) the SES component considered (including but not limited to education, occupation, income and composite measures); (Q4) the metacognitive component assessed (including but not limited to metacognitive knowledge, skills, experiences and composite measures) and the type of measurement (including but not limited to behavioral tasks, observations, self- and hetero-report questionnaires); (Q5) whether the investigation of the SES–metacognition association is the primary focus of the study or not. (Q6) several study and sample characteristics to test for potential moderating roles, including but not limited to type of publication (i.e., peer-reviewed or grey literature), type of association (i.e., raw association or adjusted association controlling for other variables), year of publication, country, sample size, intended sample SES (including but not limited to low-SES or “at-risk” participants, middle-SES, high-SES or diverse sample), SES distribution, age distribution, gender ratio, ethnicity ratio, and study design (i.e., single time-point measure, cross-sectional or longitudinal approach).

This digest examines the role metacognition can play in the teaching and learning of a second language. Understanding and controlling cognitive processes may be one of the most essential skills that classroom teachers can help second language learners develop. Rather than focus students' attention solely on learning the language, second language teachers can help students learn to think about what happens during the language learning process, which will lead to the development of stronger learning skills. The digest highlights a model of metacognition that is made up of five primary components: preparing and planning for learning, selecting and using learning strategies, monitoring strategy use, orchestrating various strategies, and evaluating strategy use and learning. Also discussed is the interaction of metacognitive skills. (VWL)

Perma.cc archive of https://drive.google.com/file/d/1eQFC_xwgEpMYumGCpCrlipducC-g-pUV/view?usp=sharing created on 2019-04-22 20:43:41+00:00.

The second EP of the day by Rowan Box. As we said before, three EPs in a row, ladies and gentlemen... As mental as it sounds...

This study aims to compare local (i.e., trial-by-trial) and global (i.e., overall awareness of one’s ability or more general performance) metacognition (sensitivity and bias) of discernment of true and false political and health claims. It also aims to examine how these measures differ across demographics, such as partisanship, age, gender, education, and alternative medicine endorsement. We will examine peoples’ ability to determine the veracity of true and false political and health claims, as well as their local and global estimates of this ability.

Metacognition is one of the buzz words in educational psychology, but it is not always clear what is meant by metacognition. Metacognition refers to higher order thinking that involves active control over the cognitive processes engaged in learning. Because metacognition plays a critical role in successful learning, it is important to study metacognitive activity and development to determine how students can be taught to apply their cognitive resources through metacognitive control. The term "metacognition" is most often associated with John Flavell (1979), who proposed that metacognition consists of both metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experiences or regulation. Flavell further divides metacognitive knowledge into knowledge of person variables, task variables, and strategy variables. Most definitions of metacognition include both knowledge and strategy components. Most individuals of normal intelligence engage in metacognitive regulation when confronted with an effortful cognitive task, but some are more metacognitive than others. The most effective approaches to metacognitive instruction involve providing the learner with both knowledge of cognitive processes and strategies and experience or practice in using both cognitive and metacognitive strategies. The study of metacognition has important implications for instructional intervention. (Contains 16 references.) (SLD)

A theoretical framework for a psychology of coaching was developed. First, the literature on cognitive approaches to coaching, behavioral approaches to coaching, and combinations of the cognitive and behavioral approaches was reviewed. Next, two studies examined the development and validation of a new measure of private self-consciousness called the Self-Reflection and Insight Scale. A solution-focused cognitive-behavioral (SF/CB) coaching framework was developed. The approach viewed coaching as a collaborative, solution-focused, result-oriented systematic process during which coaches facilitate coachees' self-directed learning, personal growth, and goal attainment. Finally, 20 adults completed a life-coaching program that was based on the new framework and focused on attaining elusive personal goals. The coaching program significantly enhanced participants' mental health and quality of life and increased their goal attainment. The SF/CB coaching model was concluded to be an effective approach to personal development and goal attainment and a potentially useful platform for a positive psychology and investigation of the psychological mechanisms involved in purposeful change in normal adult populations. (Forty tables/figures are included. The bibliography lists 693 references. The following items are appended: sample material from the cognitive, behavioral, and cognitive-behavioral coaching programs; information about the source of the Coach Yourself life coaching program; and a list of chapters in the peer-reviewed press.) (MN)

Humans confront the unexpected every day, deal with it, and often learn from it. AI agents, on the other hand, are typically brittle they tend to break down as soon as something happens for which their creators did not explicitly anticipate. The central focus of our research project is this problem of brittleness which may also be the single most important problem facing AI research. Our approach to brittleness is to model a common method that humans use to deal with the unexpected, namely to note occurrences of the unexpected (i.e., anomalies), to assess any problem signaled by the anomaly, and then to guide a response or solution that resolves it. The result is the Note-Assess-Guide procedure of what we call the Metacognitive Loop or MCL. To do this, we have implemented MCL-based systems that enable agents to help themselves; they must establish expectations and monitor them, note failed expectations, assess their causes, and then choose appropriate responses. Activities for this project have developed and refined a human-dialog agent and a robot navigation system to test the generality of this approach.

This study assessed the effectiveness of a metacognitive and reciprocal teaching approach for improving the word identification and reading comprehension skills of upper primary poor readers in a regular classroom situation. To improve word identification skills, experimental subjects were given metacognitive training in the analysis and monitoring of word identification strategies. Reciprocal teaching procedures, incorporating the above word identification strategies, were used for comprehension training. Subjects in the experimental condition received the combined metacognitive word identification and reciprocal teaching program. Subjects in two control conditions received either normal classroom word study and comprehension activities or reciprocal teaching of comprehension combined with traditional methods for identifying unfamiliar words. Measures of improvements in word identification, metacognitive awareness and monitoring of word identification strategies, and comprehension were taken on several occasions during the study. Results indicated that a combination of metacognitive word identification strategies and reciprocal teaching of comprehension was clearly more effective than normal classroom word study and comprehension activities or reciprocal teaching of comprehension with traditional methods of word identification. Results also indicated that a classroom-based model of implementation appears to be more successful when teachers have responsibility for its implementation from the beginning. The implications of these findings for classroom practice are discussed, along with the limitations of the study and suggestions for further research. (Contains approximately 150 references, and 6 tables and 5 figures of data.) (Author/RS)

The present study aims to find out the level of social intelligence and metacognition of adolescents and the correlation between social intelligence and metacognition of adolescents. Since it is a fact-finding expedition, survey method was adopted by the investigator. Stratified random sampling techniques of 120 adolescents falling in the age group of 18-20 years were taken for this investigation. The above samples were taken from the undergraduate students who are studying in two Government arts and science colleges in Tiruchirappalli District which are the Colleges, affiliated to Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India, of whom 69 are boys and 51 are girls. Special attention was given to such factors like gender and subjects. Social Intelligence Scale is developed and validated by the investigator (2011) and Metacognition Inventory by Punitha Govil (2003) was used to collect the data. The data are analyzed by percentage analysis, mean, standard deviation, 't' test and correlation. The findings of the study results reveal that (i) the 54.2 percent of adolescents have a high level of social intelligence and 67.5 percent of adolescents have a moderate level of metacognition, (ii) there is a significant difference between boy and girl adolescents with regard to social intelligence and its dimensions namely social information processing, social awareness and social skills (iii) there is no significant difference between boy and girl adolescents with regard to metacognition and its dimensions such as regulation of cognition and knowledge of cognition (iv) there is significant difference between arts group and science group adolescents in their social intelligence and in their metacognition, (v) there is no significant relationship between social intelligence and metacognition of adolescents with regard to boy, arts group and science group respondents, but there is no significant relationship between social intelligence and metacognition of adolescents with regard to girl respondents.

While metacognition is an important component of the learning process for college students, development of metacognitive knowledge and regulation is particularly important for students with LD and/or ADHD. The researchers used Schraw and Dennison's (1994) "Metacognitive Awareness Inventory" (MAI) to assess first year college students' baseline and follow-up levels of metacognitive awareness during a strategic learning course for students with LD and/or ADHD. Over their first year in college, the students showed significant improvements in a number of metacognitive subprocesses. Several subprocess scores were also found to be positively correlated with GPA. This study's findings can be helpful to practitioners in the postsecondary LD support field. This approach may also be an appropriate way to evaluate the effectiveness of LD support programs when used as part of a broader programmatic review.

Four studies are reported that used a metacognitive evaluation procedure that can be group-administered and objectively scored. The procedure assesses the knowledge monitoring component of metacognition by evaluating the discrepancy between students' estimates of how well they are likely to perform on a task and their actual performance. The first study examined mathematics and mathematics anxiety in 51 fifth graders. Another study examined whether the metacognitive evaluation procedure was related to a more distant domain, such as learning in school. Participants were 139 college students (84 with complete data) taking a word knowledge test. The third study examined correlations of scores from the metacognitive evaluation procedure and prior learning in college for 115 students. The fourth study investigated the relationship between student estimation of words they would know and their estimates of performance on examinations for 77 college students. Results of the four studies confirm the importance of metacognitive monitoring on achievement in mathematics for elementary students and for college learning. Two tables and six figures present study findings. (Contains 43 references.) (SLD)

A simplistic definition of metacognition is "thinking about thinking." It involves taking time to analyze and delve into the various ways the mind receives and retains information. It is not a new concept but metacognition is evolving as a new word for successful learners. It is stimulating much conversation and excitement in academia as educators strive to enhance learning skills. This paper dissects the concept of metacognition and argues that it could be the new "best" thing in the field of thinking and learning. It discusses the Miles College experience in using metacognition principles to enhance student learning.

A simplistic definition of metacognition is "thinking about thinking." It involves taking time to analyze and delve into the various ways the mind receives and retains information. It is not a new concept but metacognition is evolving as a new word for successful learners. It is stimulating much conversation and excitement in academia as educators strive to enhance learning skills. This paper dissects the concept of metacognition and argues that it could be the new "best" thing in the field of thinking and learning. It discusses the Miles College experience in using metacognition principles to enhance student learning.

A Study Investigating the Role of Reasoning Capacity in determining one's calibration with respect to confidence (is one more confident for easier problems and less confident for harder problems), and also one's tendency to reflect based on how confident they feel (reflecting when confidence is low and not reflecting when confidence is high)

A Study Investigating the Role of Reasoning Capacity in determining one's calibration with respect to confidence (is one more confident for easier problems and less confident for harder problems), and also one's tendency to reflect based on how confident they feel (reflecting when confidence is low and not reflecting when confidence is high)

Final study examining the relationship between cheating and knew it all along judgments.

Metacognition in arithmetic and spelling in typically developing third graders

This project is part of a master's project. In this study, the participants will perform a basketball throwing task. Before each ball throw, they will have to estimate whether the ball will fit in the basket or not, on a scale from 0 to 100 (0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100). Each participant will make these local judgements under two different experimental conditions: a "success" condition in which they will have to predict how well they think they will succeed in putting the ball in the basket (from 0 "I'm sure I won't succeed" to 100 "I'm sure I will succeed"); and a "failure" condition in which they will have to predict how badly they will fail to put the ball in the basket (from 0 "I'm sure I won't fail" to 100 "I'm sure I will fail"). Participants will also make prospective and retrospective global judgments under each experimental condition: we will ask them to predict how many throws they think they will success/fail on 30 throws (a) before making the 30 throws (i.e., prospective judgments) and then (b) after the 30 throws (i.e., retrospective judgments). Two statistical analyses will be carried out in this study: one on local judgements and one on global judgements.

Metacognition, the cognizance and understanding of thought processes, improves into adulthood. While older children and adolescents demonstrate awareness of changing cognitive control modes of a task (e.g., identifying manipulations that tax proactive vs. reactive control), they are less likely than young adults to use that information to adapt their behavior, suggesting a gap between knowledge and action. Is this knowledge-action gap specific to cognitive control contexts, or pervasive across other types of tasks? To investigate whether the development of metacognition is consistent or variable across cognitive tasks (“contexts”), this study will administer a blocked task-switching paradigm in children through adults. The blocked contexts serve as proxies for different types of cognitive processes and will manipulate inhibition vs. proactive control modes, high vs. low working memory demands, and high vs. low reward levels. The NASA-TLX questionnaire—with four items indexing participants’ perceptions of task demand, pace, success, and effort—will be administered after each manipulation within all three contexts. NASA-TLX ratings permit age-related characterization of participants’ subjective experience of the manipulations and their relation to objective task performance. In every context, we hypothesize that metacognition will improve with age. While children and adolescents are expected to recognize task manipulations, adults are expected to demonstrate stronger alignment between their perceived and actual performance. Ultimately, our analyses will elucidate how metacognition changes with age in different environments.

Metacognition, the cognizance and understanding of thought processes, improves into adulthood. While older children and adolescents demonstrate awareness of changing cognitive control modes of a task (e.g., identifying manipulations that tax proactive vs. reactive control), they are less likely than young adults to use that information to adapt their behavior, suggesting a gap between knowledge and action. Is this knowledge-action gap specific to cognitive control contexts, or pervasive across other types of tasks? To investigate whether the development of metacognition is consistent or variable across cognitive tasks (“contexts”), this study will administer a blocked task-switching paradigm in children through adults. The blocked contexts serve as proxies for different types of cognitive processes and will manipulate inhibition vs. proactive control modes, high vs. low working memory demands, and high vs. low reward levels. The NASA-TLX questionnaire—with four items indexing participants’ perceptions of task demand, pace, success, and effort—will be administered after each manipulation within all three contexts. NASA-TLX ratings permit age-related characterization of participants’ subjective experience of the manipulations and their relation to objective task performance. In every context, we hypothesize that metacognition will improve with age. While children and adolescents are expected to recognize task manipulations, adults are expected to demonstrate stronger alignment between their perceived and actual performance. Ultimately, our analyses will elucidate how metacognition changes with age in different environments.

Since pets are being encouraged among homes for health and therapeutic reasons, then there needs to be a better understanding of how they may impact a person’s point of view on life and death. There have been both positive and negative relationships found with health and day to day activities to whether or not someone was a pet owner. Differing lifestyles often result in differing views of life and its ending. If there is a negative impact, that does not mean people should no longer have house pets, but to have an awareness of how to handle the way they influence your points of view. This study will be looking at an individual’s metacognition regarding how owning or losing a pet may have impacted their existential thinking capacity and how they process grief and mortality using qualitative data.

Since pets are being encouraged among homes for health and therapeutic reasons, then there needs to be a better understanding of how they may impact a person’s point of view on life and death. There have been both positive and negative relationships found with health and day to day activities to whether or not someone was a pet owner. Differing lifestyles often result in differing views of life and its ending. If there is a negative impact, that does not mean people should no longer have house pets, but to have an awareness of how to handle the way they influence your points of view. This study will be looking at an individual’s metacognition regarding how owning or losing a pet may have impacted their existential thinking capacity and how they process grief and mortality using qualitative data.

Whilst the processing of visual information proceeds in a forward hierarchy, advancing from simple representations in primary visual cortex to the coding of more complex object-level representations further down the dorsal pathway, it has been proposed that this automatic and implicit processing is accessed by conscious and deliberate cognition in a reverse hierarchy (Hochstein and Ahissar, 2002). Evidence for this theory is largely drawn from studies of attention, for example, in visual search, where features ‘pop-out’, whilst conjunction searches take longer. Given that metacognition is also proposed to rely on explicit vision, the evidence available to metacognitive scrutiny should also proceed in a reverse hierarchy, with higher-level visual representations being more immediately available for metacognitive decisions than lower-level visual representations. Thus, performance in metacognitive tasks on high-level visual decisions should be superior to those on low-level visual decisions. Here we seek to test this hypothesis by directly comparing metacognitive performance on high- and low- level visual decisions within observers. This experiment extends the initial version using online data collection to obtain sufficient trials to adequately compare the ‘boost’ in confidence evidence across the high- and low-level tasks.

Whilst the processing of visual information proceeds in a forward hierarchy, advancing from simple representations in primary visual cortex to the coding of more complex object-level representations further down the dorsal pathway, it has been proposed that this automatic and implicit processing is accessed by conscious and deliberate cognition in a reverse hierarchy (Hochstein and Ahissar, 2002). Evidence for this theory is largely drawn from studies of attention, for example, in visual search, where features ‘pop-out’, whilst conjunction searches take longer. Given that metacognition is also proposed to rely on explicit vision, the evidence available to metacognitive scrutiny should also proceed in a reverse hierarchy, with higher-level visual representations being more immediately available for metacognitive decisions than lower-level visual representations. Thus, performance in metacognitive tasks on high-level visual decisions should be superior to those on low-level visual decisions. Here we seek to test this hypothesis by directly comparing metacognitive performance on high- and low- level visual decisions within observers. This experiment extends the initial version using online data collection to obtain sufficient trials to adequately compare the ‘boost’ in confidence evidence across the high- and low-level tasks.

Whilst the processing of visual information proceeds in a forward hierarchy, advancing from simple representations in primary visual cortex to the coding of more complex object-level representations further down the dorsal pathway, it has been proposed that this automatic and implicit processing is accessed by conscious and deliberate cognition in a reverse hierarchy (Hochstein and Ahissar, 2002). Evidence for this theory is largely drawn from studies of attention, for example, in visual search, where features ‘pop-out’, whilst conjunction searches take longer. Given that metacognition is also proposed to rely on explicit vision, the evidence available to metacognitive scrutiny should also proceed in a reverse hierarchy, with higher-level visual representations being more immediately available for metacognitive decisions than lower-level visual representations. Thus, performance in metacognitive tasks on high-level visual decisions should be superior to those on low-level visual decisions. Here we seek to test this hypothesis by directly comparing metacognitive performance on high- and low- level visual decisions within observers. This experiment extends the initial version using online data collection to obtain sufficient trials to adequately compare the ‘boost’ in confidence evidence across the high- and low-level tasks.

Previous research found that information processed in a survival context recalled better compared information processed in non-survival contexts, named Survival Processing Effect (SPE) (Nairne et al., 2007). Present study aims to see if SPE extends to metacognition when implicit tasks are used.

Graphic organisers (GOs) are visual representations of information contained in the text that illustrate how concepts are connected and how text is structured. Metacognition (MC) is defined as “learning about learning”. GOs have been suggested to support metacognition, However, the literature on the relationship between GO and MC is large and heterogeneous. This means it is challenging for students and teachers to decide what kind of GO to use/ teach, and how to use/ teach them to facilitate students’ learning by enhancing their metacognition. In this study, a scoping review will be conducted aiming to provide a comprehensive map of the research on this topic by mainly answering the question of how does the use/ teach of Graphic organisers affect metacognition.

Graphic organisers (GOs) are visual representations of information contained in the text that illustrate how concepts are connected and how text is structured. Metacognition (MC) is defined as “learning about learning”. GOs have been suggested to support metacognition, However, the literature on the relationship between GO and MC is large and heterogeneous. This means it is challenging for students and teachers to decide what kind of GO to use/ teach, and how to use/ teach them to facilitate students’ learning by enhancing their metacognition. In this study, a scoping review will be conducted aiming to provide a comprehensive map of the research on this topic by mainly answering the question of how does the use/ teach of Graphic organisers affect metacognition.

The goal of our project is to replicate the experimental paradigm typically conducted in ecological settings that often suggest that clinicians exhibit an overconfidence bias in their clinical decisions, with methods from experimental psychology and cognitive neuroscience (research on metacognition). Recent approaches (e.g. repeated measures, signal detection theory, metacognitive sensitivity models) aiming at characterizing overconfidence in the lab have not yet been applied in the clinical field which can lead to an oversimplification of this phenomenon and prevent from designing appropriate corrective interventions if needed. To address this issue, we conceived a robust and controlled protocol using relevant and ecological stimuli and well-suited analysis methods to answer criticisms addressed to classic experiments conducted "in the wild" of the clinical context (Olsson 2014). Our experimental paradigm, which allows application of signal detection theory analysis, is a task with 60 case-vignettes administered via an online questionnaire. This will enable us to disentangle metacognitive bias (general tendency to report higher or lower confidence irrespectively of actual accuracy) from metacognitive sensitivity (capacity of confidence to discriminate between correct and incorrect responses), resulting in a better understanding of the interactions between confidence and accuracy among clinicians.

*Main study* The goal of our project is to replicate the experimental paradigm typically conducted in ecological settings that often conclude to physicians' overconfidence bias in their clinical decisions, with methods from experimental psychology and cognitive neuroscience (research on metacognition). We aim at bridging an important gap by conceiving a robust and controlled protocol using relevant and ecological stimuli and well-suited analysis methods to answer the main criticisms addressed to classic experiments conducted "in the wild" of the clinical context. Our experimental paradigm, relying on SDT task on case-vignettes administered via an online questionnaire, will also enable us to disentangle bias from sensitivity, resulting in a better understanding of the interactions between confidence and accuracy among practitioners. _________________________ *Pilot study* Through the pilot study described in this pre-registration, we will create a set of ecologically relevant and experimentally tailored stimuli, develop and adapt the instructions and settings of the online survey, and get a first rough idea of the sample size required to ensure statistical power for the analysis we want to perform.

The purpose of this study is to test the effect of a magic trick on subjects' metacognition and metamemory. At the same time, we will see if high beliefs in esoteric domains or falsme memory experiences (deja-vu, jamais vu) experiences have an influence on the perception of magic and meta-cognitive judgments.

There is some inconsistency in the research surrounding the development of different components of metacognition and emotion regulation, particularly during the early adolescent years. A call has been made for more longitudinal research to investigate how metacognition develops within individuals (Azevedo, 2020), as research is predominantly cross-sectional, particularly after the early childhood years. There is a lack of research into the development of multiple facets of metacognition, alongside emotion regulation, and their impacts on wellbeing. Furthermore, Year 9 has been found to be the peak of the academic wellbeing dip (OECD, 2021). Investigating the development of metacognition, emotion regulation and wellbeing from the transition to high school up to Year 9 would provide novel insight into what changes are occurring within individuals during this time period and may reveal predictors of wellbeing that could be targeted in interventions to buffer the impacts of the academic wellbeing “dip”.

This study aims to replicate key findings from our other pre-registered study, Effect of Feedback on Younger and Older Adults’ Metacognition. For more information on that study, see our preregistration at https://osf.io/9yab2. In that study, younger and older adults received feedback, presented as percentiles, on their performance on our novel cognitive battery. We then examined whether this task-specific feedback induced updates in their global metacognitive beliefs after a two-week delay. A key result from that (unpublished) study was that younger adults exhibit feedback-induced belief updating after that delay. Older adults also showed evidence of this; however, the effect was not significant either due to unexpected baseline differences or to lack of power. When we analyzed data to minimize these unexpected baseline differences, we found stronger evidence that older adults used feedback to update their beliefs, however, we did not preregister that particular analysis. This new study will collect a new sample of data from older adults, to determine if the prior results replicate or not and thereby bolster our conclusions. Information about sample size, hypotheses, and planned analyses can be found below.

This study aims to study the domain generality of metacognition by examining overlaps of metacognitive efficiency across perceptual, working memory and long-term memory tasks. To explain the nature of metacognition, we incorporate manipulations at both first- and second-order processes by isolating the first-order task performance and second-order metacognitive judgement.

This study aims to study the domain generality of metacognition by examining overlaps of metacognitive efficiency across perceptual, working memory and long-term memory tasks. To explain the nature of metacognition, we incorporate manipulations at both first- and second-order processes by isolating the first-order task performance and second-order metacognitive judgement.

This study aims to study the domain generality of metacognition by examining overlaps of metacognitive efficiency across perceptual, working memory and long-term memory tasks. To explain the nature of metacognition, we incorporate manipulations at both first- and second-order processes by isolating the first-order task performance and second-order metacognitive judgement.

The main goal of the scoping review is to identify the contributing factors to the development of self-regulation and metacognition among young musicians, learning to play an instrument in out-of-school settings. Metacognition and self-regulation are both key abilities for young musicians learning to play an instrument, especially in out-of-school settings. Still, few papers explore and present ways to foster self-regulation and metacognition for this population (e.g., pedagogical approaches, didactic tools, specific practice strategies, etc.). A greater understanding of the development of these abilities would allow us to intervene more effectively with young music learners and their teachers. To be selected in the review, studies will have to: (1) include mostly beginner musicians aged 16 and under; (2) address the development of self-regulation or metacognition; (3) examine exclusively out-of-school instrumental instruction; (4) be of empirical design and written in either French or English. Research will be carried out in French on the Cairn.info and Érudit.org websites, and in both English and French on the following databases: Academic Search (via EBSCO); Education Source (via EBSCO); Education Resources Information Center [ERIC] (via Ovid); Music Index (via EBSCO); ProQuest Dissertations and Theses [PQDT] (via ProQuest); PsycINFO (via Ovid); International Repertory of Music Literature [RILM] (via EBSCO); and Web of Science (via Clarivate). Data extracted from selected studies will notably include publication, methodological, and empirical information. Recommendations relevant to the review will be synthesized to discuss pedagogical implications and possible interventions.

Students tackling the new GCSE examination curriculum face the challenge of needing to know and memorise more information for their examinations, as most subjects no longer have coursework and students are assessed in examinations at the end of the course. This shift towards increased subject knowledge and one-off, high stakes examinations not only means students now have to memorize much more than students taking the previous GCSE examinations, but also that they also face increased pressure to perform to their best in a stressful high-stakes examination. There is some evidence to suggest that teaching students how to use metacognitive processes can improve their academic attainment. This study will investigate if the explicit teaching of metacognition leads to better outcomes in GCSE English Literature examinations, in both grades and memory for quotations, than an implicit approach. It will also examine if the explicit teaching of metacognition can lead to an increase in self-reported self-efficacy and a reduction in self-reported academic anxiety.

Students tackling the new GCSE examination curriculum face the challenge of needing to know and memorise more information for their examinations, as most subjects no longer have coursework and students are assessed in examinations at the end of the course. This shift towards increased subject knowledge and one-off, high stakes examinations not only means students now have to memorize much more than students taking the previous GCSE examinations, but also that they also face increased pressure to perform to their best in a stressful high-stakes examination. There is some evidence to suggest that teaching students how to use metacognitive processes can improve their academic attainment. This study will investigate if the explicit teaching of metacognition leads to better outcomes in GCSE English Literature examinations, in both grades and memory for quotations, than an implicit approach. It will also examine if the explicit teaching of metacognition can lead to an increase in self-reported self-efficacy and a reduction in self-reported academic anxiety.

This study aims to investigate the relationships between behavior in a risky decision-making task and metacognition about that behavior in children aged 8-18 with depression and/or anxiety. Using a cross-sectional observational design, the study integrates computational modeling and self-report measures to explore how decision and metacognition processes may relate to symptoms of depression, anxiety, and self-efficacy. The participants will complete validated questionnaires assessing anxiety (SCARED), depression (Mood and Feelings Questionnaire), and self-efficacy (Self-Efficacy Questionnaire). A decision-making task (Confidence and Risky Decision-Making Task, or CRDM) will be performed, and behavioral data will be fitted using utility and confidence models to estimate decision- and confidence-related parameters and explore associations with psychopathology. Key statistical approaches include correlation analyses, linear regression models, and mixed-effects modeling. The study aims to elucidate how developmental and psychopathology influence decision-making confidence and its underlying mechanisms, contributing to a better understanding of youth cognitive processes.

Here we pre-register two experiments that aim to address the question of how much information is lost in multi-alternative perceptual decision making.

Examining the effect of evaluation context (single vs. joint) and interpolated testing on evaluations of one's learning experience and performance on a test.

Minimally invasive surgery is a double-edged sword presenting both advantages and dangers to a patient. On the one hand, damage to healthy tissue is reduced and recovery periods are shorter. On the other hand, the surgeon is handicapped by degraded perceptual information so that the probability of certain types of errors is increased (e.g., cutting or damaging the common bile duct during laparoscopic cholecystectomy). In challenging cases surgeons continually assess whether the patient's best interest might be served by converting a laparoscopic case to an open-incision one. Converting widens the scope and quality of perceptual information available, providing hands and eyes with direct access to the operative area. This research focuses on surgical decision making in the context of the decision to convert. A cognitive task analysis effort, involving field observations and a research study, was undertaken to elicit information about decisions made during surgery. Ten experienced (staff) and ten senior resident surgeons were shown videotape from a difficult laparoscopic surgery case. The surgeons responded to structured questions at critical points in the procedure and also provided running commentary as the operation unfolded. Based on their observations, approximately half of the surgeons decided that the case should be converted to an open procedure at some point during the operation. The verbal protocols were analyzed to identify differences as a function of expertise (staff vs. resident) and of the conversion decision (opener vs. nonopener). Staff surgeons made significantly more inferences and predictions from perceptual information and expressed awareness of boundary conditions to safe operation more frequently than resident surgeons interviewed. Further, there was evidence for a lack of situation awareness for the residents who chose not to open.

Minimally invasive surgery is a double-edged sword presenting both advantages and dangers to a patient. On the one hand, damage to healthy tissue is reduced and recovery periods are shorter. On the other hand, the surgeon is handicapped by degraded perceptual information so that the probability of certain types of errors is increased (e.g., cutting or damaging the common bile duct during laparoscopic cholecystectomy). In challenging cases surgeons continually assess whether the patient's best interest might be served by converting a laparoscopic case to an open-incision one. Converting widens the scope and quality of perceptual information available, providing hands and eyes with direct access to the operative area. This research focuses on surgical decision making in the context of the decision to convert. A cognitive task analysis effort, involving field observations and a research study, was undertaken to elicit information about decisions made during surgery. Ten experienced (staff) and ten senior resident surgeons were shown videotape from a difficult laparoscopic surgery case. The surgeons responded to structured questions at critical points in the procedure and also provided running commentary as the operation unfolded. Based on their observations, approximately half of the surgeons decided that the case should be converted to an open procedure at some point during the operation. The verbal protocols were analyzed to identify differences as a function of expertise (staff vs. resident) and of the conversion decision (opener vs. nonopener). Staff surgeons made significantly more inferences and predictions from perceptual information and expressed awareness of boundary conditions to safe operation more frequently than resident surgeons interviewed. Further, there was evidence for a lack of situation awareness for the residents who chose not to open.

A study examined how metacognition and motivation related to performance among college learners seeking to improve their skills in reading and writing. Subjects, 27 female and 16 male students representing a range of ethnicities and socio-economic conditions who were enrolled in a pre-freshman summer program at a major northern university, had their metacognitive knowledge, locus of control, reading comprehension, and writing performance measured. All participants received 12 hours of direct instruction in metacognitive skill development during the six-week program. Prior to instruction, all participants completed two questionnaires (for metacognition and locus of control), the Nelson-Denny Test, a cloze task, and a writing sample. After instruction, subjects completed all the measures again. Results indicated that: (1) subjects gained metacognitive knowledge of reading but not of writing; (2) reading comprehension and writing performance scores improved significantly; (3) gains in metacognitive knowledge and reading comprehension showed no statistically significant association; and (4) locus of control scores remained stable. Findings suggest that college learners can improve their metacognitive skill development through training. (Contains 13 references.) (RS)

A study examined how metacognition and motivation related to performance among college learners seeking to improve their skills in reading and writing. Subjects, 27 female and 16 male students representing a range of ethnicities and socio-economic conditions who were enrolled in a pre-freshman summer program at a major northern university, had their metacognitive knowledge, locus of control, reading comprehension, and writing performance measured. All participants received 12 hours of direct instruction in metacognitive skill development during the six-week program. Prior to instruction, all participants completed two questionnaires (for metacognition and locus of control), the Nelson-Denny Test, a cloze task, and a writing sample. After instruction, subjects completed all the measures again. Results indicated that: (1) subjects gained metacognitive knowledge of reading but not of writing; (2) reading comprehension and writing performance scores improved significantly; (3) gains in metacognitive knowledge and reading comprehension showed no statistically significant association; and (4) locus of control scores remained stable. Findings suggest that college learners can improve their metacognitive skill development through training. (Contains 13 references.) (RS)