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This paper explains the difference between one- and two-way communication between teachers and students and describes the effect on learning of these types of communication and of "psychological size," or the total psychological impact that one person has on another. The importance of integrating individual teacher style with these concepts is stressed. Since effective teaching involves skill and can therefore be learned, experimentation and review of teaching styles is also suggested. (Author/KS)

This paper discusses possible uses for student communication journals in the interpersonal communication classroom. Appropriate interpretation of student journal entries can clarify the effectiveness of instructional games and simulations, stimulate integration of experience-based affective learning systems within a sound theoretical framework, and promote changes within the teacher/student interpersonal relationship. A typical journal entry is outlined and analyzed with regard to how it meets the above conditions. In addition, an actual entry from a student journal is discussed. (Author/KS)

Previous research on communication apprehension has revealed a reduction in student apprehension over a semester-length course in speech communication. Further research indicates, however, that, while most students do experience a reduction, a sizable percentage actually report an increase. This study sought to determine the difference between those individuals who report a decrease and those who report an increase. Discriminant analysis of 34 possible predictors revealed 12 significant discriminators. (Author)

In the drive to facilitate inclusion in the classroom, one often overlooked factor that affects the environment of all classrooms is nonverbal interaction. This study was conducted to identify some specific nonverbal messages that are often culturally bound; to help educators and others involved in education understand nonverbal signals and avoid inadvertently sending negative messages; and to validate the voice of diverse populations in the classroom. Individuals (N=22) from several cultures (European American, African American, Native American, Asian American, and Hispanic American), who reside in an urban area in Minnesota, were either interviewed or asked to respond to a questionnaire. Results are presented as a synthesis of culturally specific nonverbal behaviors gathered from respondents with respect to: eye contact, personal space, touch, voice, use of gestures, facial expressions, engaging behaviors, symbols, time, directness, educational attitudes, economics, and the function of language. Based on this information, it was concluded that successful integration of knowledge about nonverbal messages is a key component in the initial stages of multicultural education. (Contains 15 references.) (LL)

In the drive to facilitate inclusion in the classroom, one often overlooked factor that affects the environment of all classrooms is nonverbal interaction. This study was conducted to identify some specific nonverbal messages that are often culturally bound; to help educators and others involved in education understand nonverbal signals and avoid inadvertently sending negative messages; and to validate the voice of diverse populations in the classroom. Individuals (N=22) from several cultures (European American, African American, Native American, Asian American, and Hispanic American), who reside in an urban area in Minnesota, were either interviewed or asked to respond to a questionnaire. Results are presented as a synthesis of culturally specific nonverbal behaviors gathered from respondents with respect to: eye contact, personal space, touch, voice, use of gestures, facial expressions, engaging behaviors, symbols, time, directness, educational attitudes, economics, and the function of language. Based on this information, it was concluded that successful integration of knowledge about nonverbal messages is a key component in the initial stages of multicultural education. (Contains 15 references.) (LL)

This chapter showcases the implementation of an E+VE (Erasmus+ Virtual Exchange) project in a 'broadening module' (elective content-specific modules offered across the university curricula) at the University of Limerick (UL), entitled 'Communication Across Cultures'. The pedagogical approach follows a blended learning model where face-to-face lectures are combined with the "Cultural Encounters" programme series of iOOCs (interactive Open Online Courses) offered by E+VE. This pedagogical practice has received positive feedback due to the practical appropriateness and effectiveness of the VE to the module, and has also been successful in terms of intercultural awareness and learning, in addition to the development of intercultural competence and communication skills. [For the complete volume, "Designing and Implementing Virtual Exchange -- A Collection of Case Studies," see ED609252.]

Mathematics programmes in basic education are currently undergoing reform in Portugal. This paper sets out to see how teachers are putting the new guidelines for the teaching of mathematics into practice, with particular emphasis on maths communication in the classroom. To achieve this, an experiment in teaching the topic "Sequences and Regularities" with open-ended tasks, using a qualitative and interpretative approach, is reported. Data were collected during two class observations, from two interviews and by analysing the activities of the students. An exploratory task was chosen in the first lesson and a investigative one in the second. One month separated the two lessons, and during this time the teacher read and discussed texts on mathematics communication. Observation of the first lesson showed that the communication in the classroom was mostly focused on the teacher, which provided little student-student and student-class interaction. In the second observed lesson, the teacher changed the attention she paid to what each student said and did, encouraging the students to ask each other and encouraged student-class and the student-student communication.

To develop communication skills among non-participating students, teachers must recognize, diagnose, and treat individual problems of the reticent child. Teachers need to convey the concept of an "open" classroom where all ideas are welcome, to develop questioning and "active listening," to encourage eye contact, to make use of small group discussions, to promote classroom discussion among students as well as between teacher and student, and to assume a supportive role. (A "model" plan for eight lessons, and bibliographies on creative dramatics and student-teacher interaction are included in this ESEA Title 3 report.) (JMC)

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This research project seeks to implement journaling as a means of improving oral communication in the classroom. The student population will consist of an elementary reading class, a junior high art class, and a high school math class. The probable cause literature gathered revealed a lack oral communication occurs in the classroom during discussions, because of low self-esteem, fear of rejection, anxiety, shyness, reticence and peer pressure. Solution strategies recommended by notable literature will result in the implementation of weekly journaling. The weekly integration of journaling that will be done at the three different grade levels will be introduced at the beginning of the school year, and continue through the intervention process. Post-intervention data indicated only a slight improvement in oral communication in the classroom. The researchers, however, did feel that the element of trust was enhanced through the journaling process, and that made for a better climate in the classroom. Appendixes contain a parent letter; pre- and post-student survey; teacher observation checklist; a teacher communication survey; blank journal forms and templates; and online journal templates. (Contains 39 references, 3 tables, and 27 figures.) (Author/RS)

Educators have become so involved with delivering the curricula that they fail to acknowledge "how" they deliver the curricula. This paper considers the different forms of verbal and nonverbal communications in the classroom, cultural communications in the classroom, and communication enhancers for the classroom--issues which are major crossroads in the path to receiving a successful education. The paper contends that educators are doing an inferior job educating poor children. According to the paper, when a child does not speak Standard English, the teacher must be able to reach the child on his/her level of understanding and transfer him/her to the standard level of understanding; effective classroom communication requires the teacher and students to be able to send and receive messages accurately. It states that recognizing and appreciating communication diversity (i.e., culture) allows children to feel good about themselves, and that if the classroom teacher and the speech teacher were to team up, they could coordinate interaction with the students and provide beneficial bilingual and bicultural programs. It stresses that teachers must understand the nature of language and the nature of dialect differences and then they must decide how to approach the problem--they can recognize "non-standard" dialect and eradicate it, leave the student language alone, or accept bidialectalism. The paper states that the classroom should: provide a variety of stimuli; provide a secure, comfortable feeling; be adapted to fit the activity; and give some privacy and individuality. Contains 7 references. (NKA)

Prepared as part of a series applying recent research in oral and written communication instruction to classroom practice, this booklet examines the role of technology in the classroom. Following a brief discussion of the impact of television on students, the first major section of the booklet explores the power of television as a curriculum tool. The second section reviews the new technologies, such as videodiscs, microcomputers, and word processors; discusses new applications of computers in the language arts; and refutes two myths concerning computers--that they are dehumanizing and that students' interest in computer instruction is due to the novelty of the experience. Other topics discussed in this section include the microcomputer-based curriculum being developed by Bolt, Baranek, and Newman through Department of Education funding; the Writer's Assistant program produced by researchers at the University of California at San Diego; and the microcomputer software developed at the Wisconsin Center for Education Research for use in teaching young children speaking and listening skills. The final section presents some drawbacks of computer instruction. (FL)

With the goal of generating research questions about teacher effectiveness, the first half of this paper deals with literature investigating teachers' nonverbal behavior in the classroom. This review lends support to the following ideas: (1) nonverbal cues affect relationship quality; (2) the more positive the teacher feedback to students, the more positive the students' perception of and attraction to that teacher; (3) the three independent variables of teacher-student solidarity, communicator style, and self disclosure are significantly related to perceived teacher effectiveness; (4) teachers should concentrate on emphasizing supportive behaviors and not concern themselves over defensive ones; (5) coping mechanisms can be a valuable teaching tool for managing classroom communication; and (6) a systematic program aimed at changing teacher behaviors can have a significant effect on students' evaluations of teachers and on student achievement. The second half of the paper focuses on a pilot study to conceptualize classroom climate and to assess students' and teachers' skills in decoding nonverbal facial cues. The paper reports that the results proved to be inconclusive, and discusses the use of students and teachers from communication and education classes as subjects, the Likert scale to measure perceptions, and factor analysis and regression techniques to analyze data. (EL)

Concern with academic freedom in the speech communication classroom is concern with the aims, matter, and methods of teaching. Academic freedom is a condition of relatively unconstrained inquiry and instruction upon which the pursuit and transmission of knowledge depend. Three ideas are worth noting: (1) academic freedom is grounded in some basic conception of the function or mission of the academy; (2) this mission historically has been understood as the creation and dissemination of knowledge; and (3) stress on the external element in academic freedom invites faculty to ignore an equally important internal element. Academic freedom involves not only a relative absence of external constraints; it must also be understood as an absence of internal constraints on inquiry and teaching. This understanding of the necessary conditions for inquiry and learning calls attention to the mental aspects of freedom: to the attitudes that are requisite to genuine questioning, experimentation, testing of ideas, and knowing. The intrapersonal aspect of academic freedom comprises a pair of mental habits or attitudes--the commitments to growth and adventure. Implications can be examined in three areas: the aims or objectives of instruction, the content of coursework, and the methods by which that content is managed. If individuals are genuinely committed to the ideal of academic freedom, they must strive for it themselves every bit as vigorously as they attempt to nurture it in students. For scholars and teachers, the highest responsibility is to strive to be free. (MG)

A study of the dynamic organization of content through the sequence of communication behaviors in the classroom attempted to 1) systematically analyze observed and classified communication behaviors of teachers and students in the classroom which relate to content; 2) display the data thus generated so that elements, sequences, and organizations of communication behaviors related to content development can be studied and analyzed; and 3) extrapolate prototypes of content development from the analysis of elements, relationships, and organizing principles of content communication behaviors. Twelve junior high school teachers and their students were observed and video-taped as they engaged in teaching and learning activities in the four subject areas of science, mathematics, social studies, and English. Tapes of 34 class sessions were classified and codified using the 12-category Content Analysis System (developed and refined from a basic scheme of five categories: background, naming, defining, examples, and amplification). Analysis of data consisted of a classification of elements of content communication and the identification of larger and larger sequences of communication behaviors within which these content elements were found. Analysis of elements and larger sequences of data was made of the sample as a whole and within the sample according to subject area and according to individual teachers. (Summary findings are presented and the category system is included.) (JS)

The principles and practices of general semantics can be taught to college classes within the context of quality science fiction writings. The works of A. E. van Vogt and Robert Heinlein are particularly useful in exemplifying the details of general semantics. These works and some other science fiction are based upon the Korzybskian principles of "time-binding," the "natural order" of evaluating and decision making, and "consciousness of abstracting from phenomena in constant flux." The intrapersonal and interpersonal environments described in these stories are embodiments of Alfred Korzybski's postulations. The teaching of general semantics is greatly facilitated by the classroom use of these works which illustrate the contemporary viability of such speech communication study. (CH)

The Speech Communication Club at St. Cloud University (Minnesota), begun in 1981, serves as a good example of how nonperformance student organizations lead to student growth and departmental development. Results of a survey which measured the club's effectiveness indicated that students enter the organization with different goals dependent on the stage in their student career. Members report that these goals are being met. The primary responsibility of the advisors at this more mature level of program development appears to be twofold: first, to assist students in becoming more cognizant of the organization as a forum for extending class/textbook learning to their experience in the organization; and second, to assist department faculty in becoming cognizant of the ways in which the organization is assisting the department in achieving its goals. With the strong emphasis in post-secondary education on experiential learning, this nonperformance student organization offers still another channel for working with this concept within the field of speech communication, by drawing students to the observable and the concrete. (One figure is included, and an appendix containing the Communication Club Survey is attached.) (KEH)

The Speech Communication Club at St. Cloud University (Minnesota), begun in 1981, serves as a good example of how nonperformance student organizations lead to student growth and departmental development. Results of a survey which measured the club's effectiveness indicated that students enter the organization with different goals dependent on the stage in their student career. Members report that these goals are being met. The primary responsibility of the advisors at this more mature level of program development appears to be twofold: first, to assist students in becoming more cognizant of the organization as a forum for extending class/textbook learning to their experience in the organization; and second, to assist department faculty in becoming cognizant of the ways in which the organization is assisting the department in achieving its goals. With the strong emphasis in post-secondary education on experiential learning, this nonperformance student organization offers still another channel for working with this concept within the field of speech communication, by drawing students to the observable and the concrete. (One figure is included, and an appendix containing the Communication Club Survey is attached.) (KEH)

There is an ongoing debate among L2 educators regarding the best way for students to achieve effective communication and language spontaneity. The flipped classroom refers to an educational model where the traditional practice of dedicating class time to direct instruction is flipped so that students receive initial instruction at home and then spend class time working with peers in a collaborative environment. Language instructors hope to promote conversation and communication among students, but with so much time spent on grammatical explanations in class, it is difficult to give communication the attention it deserves. The participants in this research study included community college Spanish students from sections 1 (the control group) and 2 (the experimental group) of SPAN 101 and lasted the duration of an academic spring semester. The findings are discussed, followed by a discussion on the applicability of this educational design.

There is an ongoing debate among L2 educators regarding the best way for students to achieve effective communication and language spontaneity. The flipped classroom refers to an educational model where the traditional practice of dedicating class time to direct instruction is flipped so that students receive initial instruction at home and then spend class time working with peers in a collaborative environment. Language instructors hope to promote conversation and communication among students, but with so much time spent on grammatical explanations in class, it is difficult to give communication the attention it deserves. The participants in this research study included community college Spanish students from sections 1 (the control group) and 2 (the experimental group) of SPAN 101 and lasted the duration of an academic spring semester. The findings are discussed, followed by a discussion on the applicability of this educational design.

Testing in foreign language classrooms is characterized by excessive preoccupation with students' ability to manipulate small grammatical features, while testing of communication is conspicuously absent. Furthermore, current testing is often done for the purpose of generating labels for students or for their post-instructional performance. This paper suggests that evaluators add another purpose: to discover what they know already and what they don't know yet. Testing of communication of meaningful content, with focus on all four language skills, should also be added. In this paper test items exemplifying these concepts are contrasted with traditional test questions. Although the incorporation of these concepts in foreign language testing will not radically change the status quo, perhaps it will promote the development of students who are more capable of communicating with other human beings, and help them to become more knowledgeable, sensitive, self-actualizing and fully functioning individuals. (DB)

The repercussions of an increasingly globalized society present opportunities to communication academics for designing new and interdisciplinary courses, team teaching, and guest lecturing. Among the contributions that communication instructors could make to such an endeavor is to offer information about sociolinguistics. Communication scholars are interested in both the social and the linguistic dimensions of "speech communities," and can describe to students the benefits (access and inclusion) of being an effectively functioning member. To be an effectively functioning member of a speech community, a person needs to know: (1) when to talk or remain silent; (2) whom to talk to, and whether this should be done directly or through another person; (3) what topics may or may not be discussed; (4) whether the communication should be oral and/or written, mediated and/or face to face; (5) which linguistic code (language, dialect, style) is appropriate; and (6) where and when it is appropriate to talk. Communication instructors can plan cross-disciplinary team-taught courses, be guest lecturers in each other's classes, develop new courses, and incorporate new modules into existing programs. Some instructional techniques that should be considered in such efforts include: situational contrasts, case studies, guest speakers, and media materials. (PRA)

Education may be seen as a form of verbal communication. Opinions about the part language plays in pedagogical communication differ according to the emphasis placed on: (1) the teacher (i.e., language as a means of transferring knowledge, as in the traditional teacher-centered concept); (2) the students (or language as a means of learning); or (3) the communicative process itself (i.e., teaching and learning as communicative interaction or dialogue). Most recently, research on classroom communication, while still looking at teacher and student talk, has taken on a new perspective. This more process-centered approach, which studies classroom verbal interaction as a form of conversation, is realized through the ethnographic method. Ethnolinguistic research on educational discourse has begun to focus on underlying social norms, schemata created and signaled by participants, and systems governing verbal classroom interaction. Within the last category are studies of pedagogical actions expressed in language (structuring, soliciting, responding, reacting), of the transactions occurring in lessons, and of the eliciting of verbal exchanges. A 39-item bibliography is included. (MSE)

Teachers can use play and humor to establish a climate conducive to learning and mastering effective skills in interpersonal communication classes. A classroom, wherein everyone is considered a teacher and student at the same time, is a classroom acknowledging students, promoting respect and acceptance of others' worldview on a wide range of issues. Having fun role-playing and working together in dyadic or small group structured learning activities, students as well as teachers learn a great deal about interpersonal communication, enhance their interpersonal relationships, relieve tension, eliminate boredom, improve class attendance, ameliorate active participation, heighten self-awareness of the importance of others, increase self-confidence, and enjoy what they are doing. Using play and encouraging the application of a good sense of humor while playing, along with a careful consideration of the major factors of listening, affection, acceptance, respect, and timing, teachers and students would realize that it can be safe to make mistakes and learn from those mistakes. Three dyadic case studies, a logic problem, and a small group activity are attached. (Contains 32 references.) (Author/RS)

An exercise allows students to take a turn at setting a standard for instructors and, when done in groups, can encourage student socialization and interaction and build skill in constructing and presenting arguments. The exercise is in three parts and consists of: (1) committee power, in which students are asked to serve on one of three committees which assist the class in planning for the semester (syllabi construction, class policy, and presentations-attendance); (2) group mini-debates, wherein students are placed into two-four self-selected groups of five-seven to pick a debate topic, prepare arguments in support, and present these arguments to the class; and (3) student expectations of the teacher, with students writing a letter on the first or second day of class outlining their expectations and the instructor reading and responding. (CR)

The main objective of this article is to motivate, engage and create interest to learn English among the college students. Also to encourage them to interact and participate in classroom activities .Students do not give importance to English as a subject/language. Hence they are incapable of communicating in English. They are ineffective in communicating in English. The teacher has to adopt different modern techniques in order to make the subject more interesting with new ideas either by audio/video or visual aids.

Research has shown that nonverbal variables have a strong influence on classroom communication. This paper examines the way in which communication in the classroom is affected by the variables of distance, physical environment, facial expression, vocal cues, posture and gestures, touch, use of time, physical attractiveness, and dress. Each variable is separately discussed in terms of research into its actual and potential effects. The paper then calls for an approach to the study of classroom communication in which such variables are isolated and individually investigated. (GW)

Noting that with the increased popularity of courses in organizational communication, a wider array of pedagogical techniques is required to enhance students' learning experience and thus produce more competent participants in organizational life, this paper presents a rationale and guidelines for the use of case studies as an instructional technique. The paper first defines case studies and discusses the educational value of the technique in terms of enhanced cognitive ability and student interaction. The paper next presents guidelines for the use of case studies, discussing ways that the risks implicit in this method can be reduced, and how cases should be selected. The paper also discusses factors affecting student participation in case study discussion, including instructor style, amount of participation desired, and the discussion techniques to be used for processing the cases. Finally, the paper offers three types of resources for the teachers wishing to use case studies in their courses: (1) a sample case presented with suggestions for processing the data in class; (2) various topics for teacher generated cases; and (3) several sources for an abundance of good cases. (HTH)

Noting that with the increased popularity of courses in organizational communication, a wider array of pedagogical techniques is required to enhance students' learning experience and thus produce more competent participants in organizational life, this paper presents a rationale and guidelines for the use of case studies as an instructional technique. The paper first defines case studies and discusses the educational value of the technique in terms of enhanced cognitive ability and student interaction. The paper next presents guidelines for the use of case studies, discussing ways that the risks implicit in this method can be reduced, and how cases should be selected. The paper also discusses factors affecting student participation in case study discussion, including instructor style, amount of participation desired, and the discussion techniques to be used for processing the cases. Finally, the paper offers three types of resources for the teachers wishing to use case studies in their courses: (1) a sample case presented with suggestions for processing the data in class; (2) various topics for teacher generated cases; and (3) several sources for an abundance of good cases. (HTH)

Noting that with the increased popularity of courses in organizational communication, a wider array of pedagogical techniques is required to enhance students' learning experience and thus produce more competent participants in organizational life, this paper presents a rationale and guidelines for the use of case studies as an instructional technique. The paper first defines case studies and discusses the educational value of the technique in terms of enhanced cognitive ability and student interaction. The paper next presents guidelines for the use of case studies, discussing ways that the risks implicit in this method can be reduced, and how cases should be selected. The paper also discusses factors affecting student participation in case study discussion, including instructor style, amount of participation desired, and the discussion techniques to be used for processing the cases. Finally, the paper offers three types of resources for the teachers wishing to use case studies in their courses: (1) a sample case presented with suggestions for processing the data in class; (2) various topics for teacher generated cases; and (3) several sources for an abundance of good cases. (HTH)

This booklet introduces voice output communication aids (VOCAs) used by individuals with communication disabilities. It is designed to give a "nuts and bolts" description of how and when to use a VOCA, especially in the classroom, and what to expect. Part 1 discusses the essential "people" factors in VOCA use--the educational team and the student. Part 2 provides guidelines for accommodating VOCA users in the classroom and using the device for enhancing their learning. Part 3 explores how students can benefit from VOCA as they go out into the community. Part 4 provides precautions, helpful hints, and a troubleshooting checklist. The appendixes contain a glossary; a devices and vendors list; a list of 22 journals and newsletters, organizations, and books; and a reprint of part of a "Tech Use Guide" on augmentative and alternative communication. (JDD)

This paper explores behavior patterns that inhibit effective communication in everyday, educational, and business cross-cultural settings. Opportunities to change these inhibiting patterns, metaphorically referred to as "stumbling blocks," into building blocks or tools for successful intercultural understandings are discussed in the paper through three structured intercultural simulation activities. The paper names six of these stumbling blocks as the assumption of similarities, language differences, non-verbal misinterpretations, preconceptions and stereotypes, tendencies to evaluate, and high anxiety. The paper suggests three activities: (1) the diversity board activity which encourages and challenges students to explore roles of others that they will encounter in a multicultural society; (2) the intercultural dart game, similar to the game "Trivial Pursuit," which concentrates on knowledge of intercultural information; and (3) "BARNGA" which is a card tournament where students play quick games of suits without engaging in any verbal communication. (Contains five references; a sample "diversity board" is appended.) (Author/CR)

Teachers have explored the use of radio in the classroom almost since radio technology entered into the mainstream of society, yet radio remains a relatively unused mode of instruction. This Digest describes several radio applications and summarizes various radio activities to assist teachers in integrating technology into the curriculum. Discussion includes teaching the history of communications; hands-on geography and language arts activities using AM-FM radio; international shortwave radio broadcasts; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) weather service broadcasts; scanner radios; practicing communications skills with amateur radio. A bibliography and list of Web site resources is included. (AEF)

Project Based Learning (PBL) is a pedagogical approach that seeks to provide Year 7 pupils with independent and group learning skills to meet both the needs of the Year 7 curriculum as well as support their learning in future stages of their education. It particularly aims to improve their engagement in learning as well as practical literacy skills. This trial evaluates a specific type of PBL known as "Learning through REAL Projects", developed by the Innovation Unit--an independent social enterprise that aims to improve public sector services. A year long pilot project in 2013/2014 with eight schools (763 pupils) established the feasibility of a main trial. It provided the opportunity to develop the intervention and test the research procedures. The results contained in this report relate to a randomised controlled trial that took place between September 2014 and April 2016. Twelve intervention schools (2,101 pupils) and 12 control schools (1,973 pupils) were involved in the trial. REAL projects was delivered by teachers, supported in many instances by teaching assistants (TAs), with further support from senior leadership colleagues. It was delivered for a year in the intervention schools with a relatively large proportion of timetabled teaching (varying between 20% and 50%). In almost all cases it was delivered to mixed-ability Year 7 classes. The intervention used structured cross-subject "REAL Projects" planned by the delivery teachers who were supported by Classroom Coaches from the Innovation Unit. Schools were also supported by Leadership Coaches. REAL Projects are driven by an "essential question" which has significant educational content. The projects encouraged pupils to create an "excellent" product through drafting and redrafting and then to exhibit their work to an "authentic" audience. Visits were made to intervention schools at two time points and consisted of lesson observations, interviews, and focus groups with school leadership, project leads, class teachers, and pupils. Two case studies were also conducted in schools that it was agreed delivered the intervention well. Key conclusions are as follows: (1) Adopting PBL had no clear impact on either literacy (as measured by the Progress in English assessment) or student engagement with school and learning; (2) The impact evaluation indicated that PBL may have had a negative impact on the literacy attainment of pupils entitled to free school meals. However, as no negative impact was found for low-attaining pupils, considerable caution should be applied to this finding; (3) The amount of data lost from the project (schools dropping out and lost to follow-up) particularly from the intervention schools, as well as the adoption of PBL or similar approaches by a number of control group schools, further limits the strength of any impact finding; (4) From our observations and feedback from schools, we found that PBL was considered to be worthwhile and may enhance pupils' skills including oracy, communication, teamwork, and self-directed study skills; and (5) PBL was generally delivered with fidelity but requires substantial management support and organisational change. The Innovation Unit training and support programme for teachers and school leadership was found to be effective in supporting this intervention. Overall, the findings have low security. The trial was designed as a two-armed randomised controlled trial with schools being allocated to intervention or control groups. It was set up as an efficacy trial which aimed to test if the intervention can succeed under ideal conditions. However, 47% of the pupils in the intervention and 16% in the control group were not included in the final analysis. Therefore there were some potentially important differences in characteristics between the intervention and control groups. This undermines the security of the result. The trial results did not find that the PBL programme had an impact either on the pupils' literacy performance (as measured by Progress in English 12 tests), engagement, or attendance. The analysis did find a statistically significant negative impact on students eligible for free school meals (FSM), however no negative impact was found for lower-attaining pupils more generally, which makes it difficult to hypothesise why PBL might negatively impact FSM pupils specifically. This adds to the uncertainty of the finding.

Prepared as part of a series applying recent research in oral and written communication instruction to classroom practice, this booklet provides teachers, administrators, and curriculum planners with suggestions for ways to develop more effective oral communication instruction in the content areas as well as speech classes. Following a brief introduction, the first major section of the booklet examines some basic assumptions about oral communication and speech instruction and reviews several premises for direct oral communication instruction. The second section presents six approaches that might be used in developing oral communication instruction: (1) functional, (2) audience, (3) skills, (4) activities, (5) contexts, and (6) models. The remaining sections discuss each approach in detail and provide activities illustrating each. (FL)

Data gathered from 42 secondary school speech communication teachers and their students formed the foundation for a study that examined the relationship between: (1) differential use of Behavior Alteration Techniques (BATs) by teachers trained or untrained in communication in instruction and (2) learning of students of varying quality levels. Twenty-two of the teachers had recently completed master's degrees in speech communication with an emphasis in communication in instruction, and 20 teachers had no communication training. Each teacher was provided with instruments to be given to five of their best students, five average students, and five of their worst students. The students were asked to rate on a one-to-five scale how frequently their teacher used statements of varying types to attempt to change student behavior in the classroom. The teachers were asked to complete the instrument three times, indicating how frequently they used each message with good, average, and poor students. Results indicated that immediate reward from behavior, deferred reward from behavior, self-esteem, and teacher feedback contributed to positive affective learning. Punishment from teacher, legitimate-teacher authority, debt, responsibility to class, and peer modeling were negatively associated with affective learning. Results also indicated that appropriate training in communication in instruction may have led to more appropriate choices of BAT usage and increased student learning. (The research upon which this paper is based received the 1984-85 Distinguished Research Award for the Association of Teacher Educators.) (Author/HOD)

Noting that communication apprehension (CA) is a pattern of anxiety that can profoundly affect oral communication, social skills, and self-esteem, this digest examines some causes and consequences of CA and ways in which it can be diminished. Following an introduction, the digest defines CA and some of its characteristics. Next, the digest looks at the causes of CA, which include low social self-esteem and ethnic/cultural divergence in communication norms, and then briefly discusses the emotional, educational, and social consequences of CA. Finally, the digest proposes ways that CA can be prevented or reduced, including a supportive classroom environment and a developmental sequence of oral activities, and teacher training in understanding the communication behaviors of students with CA. Twelve references are included. (HTH)

Although the use of video playback of classroom assignments for students who are communication apprehensive, shy, or unassertive has received widespread adoption, a review of the literature suggests that its use is potentially harmful. Typically, those with high anxiety about communication are characterized by excessive fear of evaluation, irrational beliefs about being the focus of attention, low self-esteem, negative expectations of success, inability to accept success evaluation, tendency to negatively interpret their own actions, and unwillingness/inability to self-disclose. Video feedback focuses attention on self and magnifies communication performance difficulties and so might increase fear of communication, reinforce negative self-perceptions, and further reduce self-esteem and expectations of success in communication. Stress reactions to video feedback have been found in a few studies. Research has also shown some practices of video feedback to be successful, such as the use of self-modeling, using video models of others, preparing the students for videotaping, focusing feedback, and using several videotaped exercises to reduce novelty effects. The report includes a substantive bibliography. (HOD)

A study explored the relation between students' participation in class discussions and strategies used by instructors to overcome communication apprehension. The study to examined the impact of an interactional teaching style and specific structural exercises on students' perceptions of their classroom participation. Fifty-six undergraduate students enrolled in a social problems course participated in the study. At the end of the course students completed four-page questionnaires assessing their participation and perceived changes in their communication skills. Results indicated that while the students expressed changes in their communication skills and comprehension of a course topic as a result of their class participation, their perceived participation in class discussions was related significantly to communication apprehension. The teacher's interactional style and the structured course exercises had no significant impact on class participation. Findings suggest the importance of communication apprehension in the college classroom environment, but do not clearly reveal the roles of the teacher and the course structure. It may be that alternative strategies need to be designed to reduce communication apprehension, and that those strategies might be more effective within the family environment. (Three tables of data are included, and 19 references are attached.) (PRA)

A study considered whether nonnative English-speaking students are educationally handicapped in American classrooms by their communication competence (CC) and/or communication apprehension (CA). Affective, cognitive, and behavioral learning outcomes of 298 international college students' CA, immediacy (degree of perceived physical or psychological closeness between communicators), and self-reported CC were determined using two versions of the Personal Report of Communication Apprehension. Results indicated strong correlations between (1) CA in students' native language and CA in English, (2) immediacy with American students and immediacy with instructors, and (3) CA in English and self-perceptions of competency when communicating in English. Analyses revealed a modest relation between students' CA and their immediacy with Americans in general. Findings also showed that CA and immediacy are generalized by students in both their native language and English. In addition, a significant correlation was found between CA in students' native language and competency in that language, between CA in English and affect for the instructor, and between CA and behavior intent. However, CA was not significantly correlated with other affective, cognitive, and behavioral learning outcomes. Nor were competence or immediacy in English found to be significantly related to learning outcomes. (JD)

A study considered whether nonnative English-speaking students are educationally handicapped in American classrooms by their communication competence (CC) and/or communication apprehension (CA). Affective, cognitive, and behavioral learning outcomes of 298 international college students' CA, immediacy (degree of perceived physical or psychological closeness between communicators), and self-reported CC were determined using two versions of the Personal Report of Communication Apprehension. Results indicated strong correlations between (1) CA in students' native language and CA in English, (2) immediacy with American students and immediacy with instructors, and (3) CA in English and self-perceptions of competency when communicating in English. Analyses revealed a modest relation between students' CA and their immediacy with Americans in general. Findings also showed that CA and immediacy are generalized by students in both their native language and English. In addition, a significant correlation was found between CA in students' native language and competency in that language, between CA in English and affect for the instructor, and between CA and behavior intent. However, CA was not significantly correlated with other affective, cognitive, and behavioral learning outcomes. Nor were competence or immediacy in English found to be significantly related to learning outcomes. (JD)

tion

Defining risk communication as the "interactive process of exchange of information and opinion among individuals, groups, and institutions,...involving multiple messages about the nature of risk," this Digest argues that risk communication has much to offer instructors of cultural studies composition who want to revive students' sense of personal risk in the discursive practices of their culture. The Digest outlines how to introduce risk communication into the cultural studies composition classroom, and the opportunities it offers to students, including: (1) allowing students to choose topics of real risk for study; (2) encouraging students to study issues that matter to them, issues that they feel represent real risk in their lives; (3) teaching students to decipher risk messages and leading them to study stories of blame by critiquing data and language used to construct stereotypes about certain members of society; (4) encouraging students to situate themselves in discursive practices; and (5) providing students with the tools for participating in the public sector. The Digest concludes that through the study of risk communication in cultural studies composition, students can be taught methodologies that will enable them to participate in society as more informed, productive citizens. (NKA)

SYMLOG, a method for capturing group members' perceptions of their interactions, is a useful research methodology which can also be used to teach group competencies. Drawing from social psychology, management, and communication disciplines, researchers using SYMLOG have captured issues of leadership, cohesion, and group processes over time. Using SYMLOG as a central focus in an upper level group communication course introduces students to group research techniques and allows them to use the technique to reveal information about their own interaction in groups. Students are assigned a group task which has a group outcome and group reward and allowed to work on that task in class for a period of weeks. During that time, group members complete ratings about their groups's process. Initial ratings are made by individual members and used as individual feedback. As the group matures, all individual members make ratings and the instructor facilitates group-level feedback so that individual members have access to their own perceptions of group performance as well as group-level data. This creates an opportunity to compare/contrast individual against others' perceptions and sets up an opportunity for healthy dialogue about how the group is going about its business. SYMLOG will also be contrasted to Interaction Process Analysis (IPA) as a technique to inform group members about individual and group performance. (Contains 5 figures and 18 references.) (Author)

Graduate programs which typically produce college instructors rarely teach "how to teach." There is an instructional tool, however, which is invaluable for developing instructional communication skills: the case method. It can also be an effective means of helping pre-service teachers develop teaching skills. The case method is an innovative instructional strategy that presents participants with a narrative about some topical event or situation that has happened or is likely to happen in a particular environment. Typically, cases depict real world situations and are written with an open ending, which stimulates individual as well as group skill in critical thinking, problem solving, discussion, and decision making. Case studies appropriate for analysis in the instructional communication classroom address a wide range of topics, including diversity, motivation, classroom climate, teacher-student relationships, communication apprehension, student needs, instructional strategies, evaluation, and humor. This instructional strategy compounds the advantages of small group discussion because the topic analyzed is a scenario in which students may find themselves once they leave the protective environment of the classroom. This "safe environment" enables students to process feasible, plausible, and ideal courses of action and their associated ramifications. There are numerous ways for students to prepare for a case discussion. They can read the case in advance while answering study questions; or they can skim in it class. In-class analysis generally begins with students' sharing their responses in a small group. (Contains 33 references.) (TB)

Graduate programs which typically produce college instructors rarely teach "how to teach." There is an instructional tool, however, which is invaluable for developing instructional communication skills: the case method. It can also be an effective means of helping pre-service teachers develop teaching skills. The case method is an innovative instructional strategy that presents participants with a narrative about some topical event or situation that has happened or is likely to happen in a particular environment. Typically, cases depict real world situations and are written with an open ending, which stimulates individual as well as group skill in critical thinking, problem solving, discussion, and decision making. Case studies appropriate for analysis in the instructional communication classroom address a wide range of topics, including diversity, motivation, classroom climate, teacher-student relationships, communication apprehension, student needs, instructional strategies, evaluation, and humor. This instructional strategy compounds the advantages of small group discussion because the topic analyzed is a scenario in which students may find themselves once they leave the protective environment of the classroom. This "safe environment" enables students to process feasible, plausible, and ideal courses of action and their associated ramifications. There are numerous ways for students to prepare for a case discussion. They can read the case in advance while answering study questions; or they can skim in it class. In-class analysis generally begins with students' sharing their responses in a small group. (Contains 33 references.) (TB)

The "NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements for Intercultural Communication" (2017) task educators with helping students better recognize "obviously inappropriate behaviors in familiar everyday situations" (p.15), yet today's L2 classroom rarely includes pragmatic speech acts in curriculum, especially with regard to online language learning. To this end, in the fall 2018 semester at two community colleges, intercultural/pragmatic lessons on invitation sequences were implemented in both online and on-ground Spanish One classes involving both written and spoken conversations with native speakers as to determine if pragmatics can be acquired online. Control groups were also established. Preliminary data suggest that online students can acquire pragmatic competence thanks to online interventions; however, more complex intercultural strategies may require more exposure to the language or on-ground components. Methodology, lessons, and pedagogical implications are included.

A professor finds the use of stories and storytelling, whether first-hand stories or second-hand stories, whether oral stories or stories provided through media or mediated channels, to be invaluable instructional tools in his communication classes. They personalize his classes, encourage a sense of camaraderie among class members, help illustrate key concepts and theories, and enliven class interactions. The professor uses a "human bingo" game, computer-mediated communication, and documentary and popular entertainment films to present relevant stories to the class. The stories help to build a personal bond that transcends the traditional class situation. The professor and the students all become part of a special narrative community. They become friends and confidants, as well as valued classmates. (RS)