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This project is interested in determining whether visual metacognition (e.g., beliefs about visual detection and what people notice) is dependent on whether individuals take a self or other perspective.

In the field of motor learning, converging evidence suggests that focusing attention on the outcome of the movement, rather than on the movement itself, improves performance (McNevin et al., 2003; Wulf, 2013). However, this evidence is primarily drawn from the fields of sport and movement sciences – mostly gross motor skills — with limited research in music. While research in sports has shown that this effect has broad generalizability across tasks, populations and performance measures, the evidence in musical tasks is particularly mixed. Although some studies have shown that external focus can enhance aspects such as temporal evenness (Duke et al., 2011) and sound quality in skilled musicians (Atkins, 2017), others on untrained singers (Atkins & Duke, 2013) and wind players (Stambaugh, 2017, 2019) indicate that internal focus can also improve performance. Indeed, attending to movement is not always detrimental, especially when performing relatively novel motor tasks (Masters & Maxwell, 2008; Tang et al., 2023). In music, novices often prioritize attention to their body movements, such as finger placement, which is essential for correct performance in the initial stages of learning to play an instrument (Stambaugh, 2019). Overall, these findings suggest that the benefits of different focus of attention strategies may depend heavily on the circumstances. Instead of seeking wide applicability of the attentional focus effect — which may lead to inconsistent results in music — we should aim to understand the specific contingencies that determine its impact. Metacognition, as a higher cognitive function, that allows us to reflect on, evaluate and control mental function (including movement and attention), and that has been also associated with the development of expertise (Concina, 2019; Sternberg, 1998; Zimmerman, 2006), could be an overlooked factor in previous research. This ability could provide insights that previous studies may have missed, and offer a more nuanced and comprehensive framework for determining the optimal focus of attention in musical performance. This study aims to clarify the underlying mechanisms of the attentional focus effect in musical performance, by exploring its dependencies on metacognitive precision. To achieve this, we will first assess the effect of the focus of attention in musical performance. We will then evaluate the role of metacognitive ability within this relationship. Our methodology will involve measuring motor metacognition using an experimental design based on previous studies and tailored to the ecologically valid task of playing the guitar (Maniscalco & Lau, 2012). Additionally, we will use self-reported questionnaires commonly employed in the educational field, as well as some of them adapted to the musical context. When performing a movement, individuals may have metacognitive access to internal parameters (i.e., motor commands driving the action) and external parameters (i.e., the environmental effects of the action). In the context of musical performance, this monitoring aligns with the spatial movement features, for the former, and with the resulting sound, for the latter. We will investigate how guitarists of different skill levels monitor these spatial and tonal aspects under different conditions. In addition, we will examine whether their ability to monitor movement affects their performance of a simple melody under different focus of attention instructions. By examining the effects of attentional focus on musical performance and disentangling its underlying mechanisms through the study of motor metacognition, we aim to also bridge cognitive science and education. Findings from this study can inform better instructional strategies during learning processes in educational contexts.

The main focus of this longitudinal study is the association between metacognition and math anxiety and the (interaction of) the role of these factors in arithmetic performance in 2nd to 3th graders. This preregistered study is part of larger longitudinal project, part of the findings of which have been reported in Bellon et al. (2019). Importantly, no data on math anxiety were analyzed or reported.

Dundee, July 2023

The research aims to establish whether teaching upper primary children about 'the testing effect' (Bjork, R. 1975) makes them feel more self-efficacious about test taking and thus improve their wellbeing (and perhaps results?) when taking high stakes tests.

The research aims to establish whether teaching upper primary children about 'the testing effect' (Bjork, R. 1975) makes them feel more self-efficacious about test taking and thus improve their wellbeing (and perhaps results?) when taking high stakes tests.

The research aims to establish whether teaching upper primary children about 'the testing effect' (Bjork, R. 1975) makes them feel more self-efficacious about test taking and thus improve their wellbeing (and perhaps results?) when taking high stakes tests.

We will investigate whether meta-memory (measured through judgments of learning and confidence judgements) influences memory integration. We will test whether the actual precision of a memory or instead how well participants feel they will/have remembered will drive how much an item will contribute to a later-formed integrated representation of their individual memories, or in other words, their memory schema. We aim to directly manipulate meta-memory using the well-studied font size effect, the finding that words presented in larger font are linked to higher judgements of learning or confidence compared to words presented in smaller font (e.g., Rhodes & Castel, 2008; Undorf & Zimdahl, 2019; Luna, Nogueira, & Albuquerque, 2019), while at the same time showing little or no difference in their objective memory performance. We will present words from different categories on screen (e.g., animals, food, clothing) together with location markers on a circle (cover story: ‘exploration of an alien planet’). Participants are instructed to learn these location-word pairs (encoding phase) and to later remember the locations when cued with the words (retrieval phase). Importantly, half the words are presented in a small font size and half in a large font size. Each category is linked to a mean, or schematic location on the circle and words from this category are presented at randomly sampled, normally distributed locations around this origin location. For each location, words located to one side of the origin are shown in small font and words on the other side in large font, but importantly the distances to the origin are mirrored. In other words, for each word on the left of the origin, there is a word in the equal distance to the right of the origin. Participants are presented with two new words from each of the six categories over the course of 10 blocks. After each block we ask them to judge the average location of each category (integration phase), thereby tracking category learning over time. This approach allows us to measure whether the recreated category locations are biased towards objective or subjective memory precision. We will furthermore use a computational model to more fully understand the different influences of these variables over time when new memories are being formed. Luna, K., Nogueira, M., & Albuquerque, P. B. (2019). Words in larger font are perceived as more important: explaining the belief that font size affects memory. Memory, 27(4), 555–560. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2018.1529797 Rhodes, M. G., & Castel, A. D. (2008). Memory Predictions Are Influenced by Perceptual Information: Evidence for Metacognitive Illusions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 137(4), 615–625. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013684 Undorf, M., & Zimdahl, M. F. (2019). Metamemory and memory for a wide range of font sizes: What is the contribution of perceptual fluency? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 45(1), 97–109. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000571

We will investigate whether meta-memory (measured through judgments of learning and confidence judgements) influences memory integration. We will test whether the actual precision of a memory or instead how well participants feel they will/have remembered will drive how much an item will contribute to a later-formed integrated representation of their individual memories, or in other words, their memory schema. We aim to directly manipulate meta-memory using the well-studied font size effect, the finding that words presented in larger font are linked to higher judgements of learning or confidence compared to words presented in smaller font (e.g., Rhodes & Castel, 2008; Undorf & Zimdahl, 2019; Luna, Nogueira, & Albuquerque, 2019), while at the same time showing little or no difference in their objective memory performance. We will present words from different categories on screen (e.g., animals, food, clothing) together with location markers on a circle (cover story: ‘exploration of an alien planet’). Participants are instructed to learn these location-word pairs (encoding phase) and to later remember the locations when cued with the words (retrieval phase). Importantly, half the words are presented in a small font size and half in a large font size. Each category is linked to a mean, or schematic location on the circle and words from this category are presented at randomly sampled, normally distributed locations around this origin location. For each location, words located to one side of the origin are shown in small font and words on the other side in large font, but importantly the distances to the origin are mirrored. In other words, for each word on the left of the origin, there is a word in the equal distance to the right of the origin. Participants are presented with two new words from each of the six categories over the course of 10 blocks. After each block we ask them to judge the average location of each category (integration phase), thereby tracking category learning over time. This approach allows us to measure whether the recreated category locations are biased towards objective or subjective memory precision. We will furthermore use a computational model to more fully understand the different influences of these variables over time when new memories are being formed. Luna, K., Nogueira, M., & Albuquerque, P. B. (2019). Words in larger font are perceived as more important: explaining the belief that font size affects memory. Memory, 27(4), 555–560. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2018.1529797 Rhodes, M. G., & Castel, A. D. (2008). Memory Predictions Are Influenced by Perceptual Information: Evidence for Metacognitive Illusions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 137(4), 615–625. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013684 Undorf, M., & Zimdahl, M. F. (2019). Metamemory and memory for a wide range of font sizes: What is the contribution of perceptual fluency? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 45(1), 97–109. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000571

The first purpose of the present study is to investigate BPD feature and attentional bias by using the Emotional Stroop Task (EST) that involves positive, negative and neutral words. The second aim of this study is to investigate individuals’ performance perceptions before and after the experimental manipulation. Lastly, the predictors of the attentional bias will be investigated. Because of the mixed results of the experimental studies, a lack of studies that include positive stimuli to emotional processing tasks gives rise to the need for the present study. Also, as far as our knowledge, there is no study to investigate the well-established linkage between attentional bias, metacognition, rumination, and BPD.

The first purpose of the present study is to investigate BPD feature and attentional bias by using the Emotional Stroop Task (EST) that involves positive, negative and neutral words. The second aim of this study is to investigate individuals’ performance perceptions before and after the experimental manipulation. Lastly, the predictors of the attentional bias will be investigated. Because of the mixed results of the experimental studies, a lack of studies that include positive stimuli to emotional processing tasks gives rise to the need for the present study. Also, as far as our knowledge, there is no study to investigate the well-established linkage between attentional bias, metacognition, rumination, and BPD.

The first purpose of the present study is to investigate BPD feature and attentional bias by using the Emotional Stroop Task (EST) that involves positive, negative and neutral words. The second aim of this study is to investigate individuals’ performance perceptions before and after the experimental manipulation. Lastly, the predictors of the attentional bias will be investigated. Because of the mixed results of the experimental studies, a lack of studies that include positive stimuli to emotional processing tasks gives rise to the need for the present study. Also, as far as our knowledge, there is no study to investigate the well-established linkage between attentional bias, metacognition, rumination, and BPD.

Metacognition has been accorded a role in both mathematical problem solving and in the learning of mathematics. There has been consistent advocacy of the need for the promotion of metacognitive activity in both domains. Such advocacy can only be effective if the advocated process is well understood. In this paper we have four goals: to describe a "multi-method" technique developed to study student mathematical metacognition; to set out the structural elements and configuration of a coherent model of metacognition in the domain of mathematical problem solving; to report on the empirical utility (and validity) of this model; and, to report the insights into student mathematical metacognition arising from the research. Multi-Method Interview Tasks are appended. (Contains 4 figures.)

Understanding how students can better manage their expectations has been a topic of interest in pedagogy for some time, yet solutions remain elusive. This paper describes a recent study which aimed to help students make more realistic predictions by increasing their metacognition. At the outset, participants completed a metacognitive awareness inventory and were asked to predict the grade for their next assessment. They were instructed on how to use a structured reflection spreadsheet and asked to reflect weekly for the study period. At the end of the study, the inventory was re-administered and participants predicted the submission time and grade for the next assessment. Although results showed a significant increase in scores in metacognition, they did not show improved prediction accuracy. Possible reasons for the outcomes and further work are discussed. (Contains 1 table.)

E-portfolios have the potential to transform students' learning experiences. They promote reflection on the significance of what and how students have learned. Such reflective practices enhance students' ability to articulate their knowledge and skills to their peers, teachers, and future employers. In addition, e-portfolios can help assess the ability of teachers and institutions to inculcate students with their core learning objectives and skills. In 2012/13, I piloted the use of an e-portfolio assignment in a sophomore molecular cell biology course to determine whether it could enhance student learning. My pilot assignment found: 1. The e-portfolio rescued students from a poorer final exam result relative to their midterm exam--students who did not complete the e-portfolio assignment had a greater probability of performing more poorly on the final relative to the midterm exam (p = 0.004); 2. E-portfolios can enhance student engagement; 3. Google Sites works well as an e-portfolio platform; 4. Instructors do not need to be technical experts when the e-portfolio platform is embedded in students' everyday digital life; 5. Instructors are able to focus on developing students' learning outcomes associated with e-portfolio assignments when e-portfolios are so embedded; 6. Students may choose whichever e-portfolio platform they prefer, needing only to submit a URL to their e-portfolio for grading.

This paper reviews the recent theoretical and empirical literature relevant to metacognition and reading comprehension. The first chapter presents a definition of metacognition and considers different types of metacognitive knowledge and the interaction among these types. The second chapter is concerned with the methods of teaching cognitive/metacognitive reading strategies. The third chapter deals with the instruments for assessing students' metacognitive knowledge. The last chapter presents the conclusions drawn from the previous literature and the author's recommendations for incorporating metacognitive knowledge into reading lessons.

This study is a follow-up to our previous study, "OCD, Metacognition, and Cognitive Deficits Following an Induced "Not Just Right Experience." In our previous study, we aimed to examine the effect of feelings of incompleteness, or the "Not Just Right Experience," on executive function (EF) and metacognitive judgments among those with obsessive-compulsive tendencies (OCT). The purpose of our study was to provide evidence for the need for the development of more targeted treatment approaches for those who express the Not Just Right Experience (NJRE) as the main motivator for their OCD symptoms. In our study, we randomized participants into either an induction condition or a non-induction condition (both of which included a list of words to be remembered), measured their NJREs, and then measured their performance on executive function tasks. We also asked participants in each condition how many words they thought they would be able to recall from the list of words they were presented with 15 minutes from when they saw them. They were given a recall task 15 minutes later, and we compared their predicted scores to their actual recall scores to test their calibration. Here, we wanted to know if participants with obsessive-compulsive tendencies are good at determining how much the NJRE is affecting them. At the end of the study, participants took the Vancouver Obsessive Compulsive Inventory (VOCI) to determine their levels of OCT. Initially, our analysis looked at whether OCT score, induction vs non induction, or the interaction between them, were good predictors of EF score and calibration score. Our results found that OCT score had a negative relationship with cognitive flexibility, but not with working memory or response inhibition. Furthermore, neither induction vs non induction, nor the interaction had any effect on any measure of EF or calibration scores. However, when reviewing our data, we noticed that there were several outliers that may have been skewing the results. Specifically, there were 3 participants who obtained a score of 12 on the Backwards Digit Span task (the highest possible score) but had an exceptionally high OCT score, which ranged from 114 to 140. When we examined these 3 participants more closely on Qualtrics, we noticed some evidence that these participants may have been bots. Two of these participants had IP addresses that came from the same place in Africa, and these responses seemed to be almost identical in nature. They both took an unusually long time to finish the study (greater than 1 hour), and they both obtained the exact same OCT score (114). Research on Qualtrics bots has identified that bots usually take longer to complete a survey than a human participant and that responses from the same bot will appear repetitive (Hernandez, 2020). Additionally, the study was done using two Qualtrics surveys, as after participants completed Digit Symbol Substitution, they had to be redirected to an external site to complete Stroop and then redirected back to a separate Qualtrics survey after they completed Stroop. One of them did not have the same Qualtrics ID on the second Qualtrics survey as they did on the first. The third participant also had an IP address in Africa on the first Qualtrics survey, but when this same participant was redirected to the second part of the study (which was an entirely different Qualtrics survey), their IP address was then changed so that they appeared in Miami. This participant also took an unusually long amount of time to complete the survey and obtained an OCT score of 140. Therefore, we removed these three participants in the subsequent analysis. Furthermore, after defending my thesis at Kwantlen Polytechnic University, I was asked a question as to why I didn’t look at the NJRE score as a predictor variable and ignore the group entirely, as the NJRE score was really the construct I was interested in. Participants in both the induction group and the non-induction group may have been induced by an NJRE, as the non-induction group did not have an absence of NJREs (M = 7.12, SD = 9.79). So, I tested the partial correlation between OCT score and all 3 measures of executive function when controlling for NJRE score. Results revealed that before controlling for NJRE, OCT score was significantly correlated with the Backwards Digit Span score and Digit Symbol Substitution score, but not the Stroop score. After controlling for NJRE score, OCT score was no longer significantly correlated with either Backwards Digit Span Score or Digit Symbol Substitution score. This provided evidence that I needed to use a different analytical approach in testing my hypothesis. With this new information, we tested whether the NJRE score mediates or moderates the relationship between OCT score and Backwards Digit Span score, and OCT score and Digit Symbol Substitution score. We did not test a mediation or moderation of NJRE on the relationship between OCT score and Stroop score or calibration score, as no significant direct effect of OCT score was observed. Our results found that the NJRE is a moderator of the relationship between OCT and working memory and a mediator of the relationship between OCT and cognitive flexibility. Therefore, in our follow-up, we are seeking to replicate these findings using a direct replication of the previous study.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether students from different academic settings differ in their usage of metacognitive strategies in mathematical problem solving, and if they do, what the differences are. A questionnaire was administered to students at various levels from academic tracks and academic streams requiring them to self-report on: (1) their metacognitive beliefs; (2) their usage of metacognitive strategies in mental tasks involving memory, problem solving, and comprehension; and (3) their attitudes towards the learning of various academic subjects. Twenty items from the questionnaire were categorized according to orientation, organization, execution, verification, and beliefs. Within each category, the frequency of usage of these metacognitive strategies as reported by students were averaged, analyzed, and interpreted. An introduction, objectives, method, results, discussion, and research implications are included. The means of items by stream and level are appended. (KR)

This paper proposes a theoretical review of the term "metacognition". It was introduced by John Flavell in the early 1970s based on the term "metamemory" previously conceived by the same scholar (Flavell 1971). Flavell (1979) viewed metacognition as learners' knowledge of their own cognition, defining it as "knowledge and cognition about cognitive phenomena". Metacognition is often referred to in the literature as "thinking about one's own thinking", or as "cognitions about cognitions". It is usually related to learners' knowledge, awareness and control of the processes by which they learn and the metacognitive learner is thought to be characterized by ability to recognize, evaluate and, where needed, reconstruct existing ideas. Flavell's definition was followed by numerous others, often portraying different emphases on or different understanding of mechanisms and processes associated with metacognition. (Contains 1 figure.)

Metacognition is a valuable tool for learning, since it is closely related to self-regulation and awareness of one's own affect. However, methods for automatically detecting and studying metacognition are scarce. Thus, in this paper we describe an algorithm for automatic detection of metacognitive language in writing. We analyzed text from the forums of two online, university-level science courses, which revealed common patterns of phrases that we used for automatic metacognition detection. The algorithm we developed exhibited high accuracy on expert-labeled metacognitive phrases (Spearman's rho = 0.878 and Cohen's kappa = 0.792), and provides a reliable, fast method for automatically annotating text corpora that are too large for manual annotation. We applied this algorithm to analyze relationships between students' metacognitive language and their academic performance, finding small correlations with course grade and medium-sized differences in metacognition across courses. We discuss how our algorithm can be used to advance metacognitive studies and online educational systems.

Current notions of metacognition merge with the predominant scientific model used in psychology, that of information processing. Metacognition is seen as a control process that governs the action of more elemental cognitive skills. Given the centrality of this notion, it is important that metacognition should be examined in detail. From the point of view of how metacognition relates to highly sophisticated computer systems in use today and in development for the future the following are discussed: (1) debugging and metacognition; (2) cognitive compatibility and learning; (3) problem definition and analyses; (4) procedures and facts; (5) process and product; and (6) tools for the mind. The perspective of this paper is that higher order languages like logo and lisp are only beginning to have an impact on the understanding of psychological processes. The whole development of computer-aided instruction, artificial intelligence, and special environments for instruction will unquestionably have profound effects on education, but its more enduring and important effect may well be increasing the understanding of cognition and learning. (PN)

Metacognition and self-regulated learning (SLR) have been advocated by many and have significant support being seen as a potentially effective and low cost way of impacting learning. Fundamentally, the underlying supposition is that metacognition and SRL are important to learning, and thus raise attainment, and various studies have established that SRL, and in particular metacognition, has a significant impact on students' academic performance, on top of ability or prior achievement. However, there is some confusion around what the terms mean, with different authors defining them in different ways, and a lot of related terms, such as "learning to learn" and "higher order thinking skills" used as substitutes in often confusing ways. In fact, the scientific literature itself shows quite a bit of divergence in the ways the terms self-regulated learning and metacognition are used. This evidence review is comprised of two sections addressing the following questions: (1) What are metacognition and self-regulated learning? and (2) How can these skills be improved, and what impact does this have on attainment? [For the related guidance report, see ED612285.]

High among the many purposes of education is the conjecture that higher-levels of cognitive activity are important to learning and intellectual development. One of the most exciting educational implications is the leverage that one may expect by enhancing learning at the cognitive and metacognitive levels. Despite the relatively rich history in both cognition and metacognition, no consensus has emerged as to the nature of higher-level knowledge. The present study aimed to know more about: (1) the nature of metacognition, and to characterize facets of higher-level metacognitive thought; (2) the process by which individuals change their metacognitive capacities with experience; and (3) the role of pedagogical practices in facilitating changes in metacognition. Six cohorts of elementary students (grades 1-6 participated in this naturalistic study across three academic years. Analysis of the data supports the following claims. First, metacognition is within the capabilities of young (school age) children. Second, children's metacognitive ability is multifaceted in nature, it can be probed and teased apart. Third, changes in metacognitive sophistication can be gained by actively engaging in the process. Fourth, changes in metacognitive ability and conceptual understanding may be more closely linked to the individual student's epistemological stance. (Contains 102 references.) (Author)

Metacognition is one of the promising contemporary research fields in psychology and education. The concept has been introduced to describe and explain how people gain control over their learning and thinking, particularly in the case of cognitive failures and difficulties they meet when dealing with information processing and problem solving (Efklides & Sideridis, 2009; Flavell, 1976). However, although every one agrees that there has to be something as "metacognition" (like the lognes monster?), no one agrees as to what exactly metacognition is about. In addition researchers currently use different concepts for overlapping phenomena (Desoete, 2007; 2008; Desoete & Roeyers, 2006; Desoete & Veenman, 2006). Is self-regulation the same as metacognitive skills? How does calibration fit in? (Contains 1 table.)

In the early drafts of the "Information Literacy Framework for Higher Education," metaliteracy and metacognition contributed several guiding principles in recognition of the fact that information literacy concepts need to reflect students' roles as creators and participants in research and scholarship. The authors contend that diminution of metaliteracy and metacognition occurred during later revisions of the "Framework" and thus diminished the document's usefulness as a teaching tool. This article highlights the value of metaliteracy and metacognition in order to support the argument that these concepts are critical to information literacy today, and that the language of these concepts should be revisited in the language of the "Framework." Certainly, metacognition and metaliteracy should be included in pedagogical strategies submitted to the newly launched "ACRL Framework for Information Literacy Sandbox."

Florida implemented the Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test (FCAT), a statewide assessment of students' academic content, in 1996. Subsequently, in 2001, the State Board of Education established passing scores on the FCAT to determine eligibility for a standard high school diploma. As of the 2015-2016 academic year, Florida requires students to pass the reading/English language arts subtest of high-stakes standardized test for graduation, now the Florida Standards Assessment (FSA), and also requires passing an end-of-course assessment in Algebra I (Florida Department of Education 2015b). The purpose of this study was to investigate the following research questions: (1) What do culturally and linguistically diverse students think and feel about high-stakes testing (i.e., FCAT)?; (2) What are culturally and linguistically diverse students' perceptions regarding effective preparation for high-stakes testing (in classes and individually)?; and (3) Do culturally and linguistically diverse students perceive that high-stakes testing affects their academic motivation, resulting in perceived differences in academic behavior? Measures employed in this study included a survey and a focus group interview protocol. Participants in both the survey and the focus group interviews were culturally and/or linguistically diverse students in South Florida. Survey participants included elementary (4th to 6th graders) and middle and high school students, and focus group participants included middle and high school students. All were active in programs that support underrepresented students in their preparation for post-secondary education, offered through local colleges and universities in cooperation with the students' home schools. Responses from study participants, combined with the superficiality and lack of specific responses in many cases, seem to indicate that students may lack the metacognitive skills to assess both their preparation prior to testing as well as that which would help improve their preparation.

Florida implemented the Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test (FCAT), a statewide assessment of students' academic content, in 1996. Subsequently, in 2001, the State Board of Education established passing scores on the FCAT to determine eligibility for a standard high school diploma. As of the 2015-2016 academic year, Florida requires students to pass the reading/English language arts subtest of high-stakes standardized test for graduation, now the Florida Standards Assessment (FSA), and also requires passing an end-of-course assessment in Algebra I (Florida Department of Education 2015b). The purpose of this study was to investigate the following research questions: (1) What do culturally and linguistically diverse students think and feel about high-stakes testing (i.e., FCAT)?; (2) What are culturally and linguistically diverse students' perceptions regarding effective preparation for high-stakes testing (in classes and individually)?; and (3) Do culturally and linguistically diverse students perceive that high-stakes testing affects their academic motivation, resulting in perceived differences in academic behavior? Measures employed in this study included a survey and a focus group interview protocol. Participants in both the survey and the focus group interviews were culturally and/or linguistically diverse students in South Florida. Survey participants included elementary (4th to 6th graders) and middle and high school students, and focus group participants included middle and high school students. All were active in programs that support underrepresented students in their preparation for post-secondary education, offered through local colleges and universities in cooperation with the students' home schools. Responses from study participants, combined with the superficiality and lack of specific responses in many cases, seem to indicate that students may lack the metacognitive skills to assess both their preparation prior to testing as well as that which would help improve their preparation.

Data and code for paper titled "The impact of feedback on perceptual decision making and metacognition: Reduction in bias but no change in sensitivity"

The relations among school ability, self-efficacy, learning approach, and metacognition were examined in a path model. Questionnaires measuring these constructs were administered to 194 Filipino college students. Path analysis was used to determine the effects of school ability on self-efficacy and learning approaches, and in turn, the effects of self-efficacy and learning approach on metacognition. The path model tested showed adequate goodness of fit (Chi [superscript 2]/df=2.77, GFI=0.98, AGFI=0.92, RMSEA=0.05). In previous studies, deep approach but not surface approach to learning facilitates performance as outcome variable. However, a different pattern emerged in the results of the present study. When school ability was used as a predictor, surface approach increased and deep approach decreased as outcomes. When they were used as predictors together with self-efficacy, both increased the use of metacognition. Surface approach among Asians is seen as a useful approach to learning that is facilitated by prior school ability, and results to awareness of one's learning. Further implications on surface and deep approach to learning are discussed. (Contains 1 figure and 2 tables.)

This study of metacognition and motivation explored variations over time in the relationships between children's metacognitions about their study activities and various components of motivation for achievement. The study attempted to: (1) identify possible causal relations between metacognitive and motivational variables by looking at their concurrent and predictive relations; and (2) verify the notion that children who report the use of cognitive strategies and self-regulation will exhibit mastery-oriented motivational goal patterns rather than ego-oriented or work-avoidant patterns. Self-report measures assessing study strategy use (rote memory strategy use, cognitive strategy use, and self-regulation), attributional beliefs, and goal orientations were administered to 154 fifth-, sixth-, and seventh-grade parochial school students in the fall and spring of the same academic year. Results confirmed a positive relationship between reported strategy use and task mastery orientation; children who reported strategy use in the fall tended to be task-mastery oriented in the spring; and children who were mastery oriented in the fall reported greater strategy use in the spring. (LL)

This project aims to explore whether metacognitive beliefs differ among patient with dementia and depression and also if they differ, how this difference affects their executive functioning abilities.

This paper presents the thesis that pair problem-solving serves as an aid to students in developing their metacognitive skills. Metacognition has been defined as knowledge and cognition about cognitive objects and as any kind of monitoring. The ability to monitor one's thoughts and actions is greatly facilitated through the pair problem-solving method. Briefly, the method calls for one student to listen to another student solve a problem aloud. The listener may ask questions so as to understand each step and all the reasonings of the solver's solution. Modeled after the clinical interviews of Piaget, students learn self-monitoring skills while learning math concepts. Examples of verbal protocols from college freshmen illustrate the emergence of metacognition during clinical interviews and during pair and group problem-solving in class. Finally, a description of a remedial math program at a major university provides practical applications of metacognition in the classroom. (Author/PK)

This paper presents the thesis that pair problem-solving serves as an aid to students in developing their metacognitive skills. Metacognition has been defined as knowledge and cognition about cognitive objects and as any kind of monitoring. The ability to monitor one's thoughts and actions is greatly facilitated through the pair problem-solving method. Briefly, the method calls for one student to listen to another student solve a problem aloud. The listener may ask questions so as to understand each step and all the reasonings of the solver's solution. Modeled after the clinical interviews of Piaget, students learn self-monitoring skills while learning math concepts. Examples of verbal protocols from college freshmen illustrate the emergence of metacognition during clinical interviews and during pair and group problem-solving in class. Finally, a description of a remedial math program at a major university provides practical applications of metacognition in the classroom. (Author/PK)

This paper presents the thesis that pair problem-solving serves as an aid to students in developing their metacognitive skills. Metacognition has been defined as knowledge and cognition about cognitive objects and as any kind of monitoring. The ability to monitor one's thoughts and actions is greatly facilitated through the pair problem-solving method. Briefly, the method calls for one student to listen to another student solve a problem aloud. The listener may ask questions so as to understand each step and all the reasonings of the solver's solution. Modeled after the clinical interviews of Piaget, students learn self-monitoring skills while learning math concepts. Examples of verbal protocols from college freshmen illustrate the emergence of metacognition during clinical interviews and during pair and group problem-solving in class. Finally, a description of a remedial math program at a major university provides practical applications of metacognition in the classroom. (Author/PK)

This study will recruit 360 participants who self-report high symptoms of anxiety. Participants will be randomly assigned to one of 4 groups: one analog intervention of Imagery Rescripting (IR) for memories, an analog intervention of IR for future events, and analog intervention of Imaginal Exposure (IE) for memories, and an analog intervention of IE for future events. The primary objectives of this study are: first, to investigate the association between insight and the severity of anxiety symptoms, and second, to explore the relationship between insight and metacognition.

The primary purpose of the present study is to extend the non-criterial recollection hypothesis developed in the context of feelings of knowing (FOK) research to other metacognitive judgement types, such as judgements of learning (JOLs) and retrospective confidence judgments (RCJs). The non-criterial recollection hypothesis posits that retrieval of seemingly irrelevant information that is associated with the target information during encoding can influence later judgements about how well one feels one knows that target information. Previous research has examined this hypothesis in the context of FOKs, which are judgements about one’s ability to later recognize unrecalled information. However few studies have examined this phenomenon in the context of JOLs or RCJs, which are judgements about one’s ability to later recall newly learned information or judgements about one’s confidence in the correctness of recently learned information that has just been recalled, respectively. Therefore, the goal of the present study is to examine the relationships among metacognitive judgement magnitude, metacognitive judgement accuracy, recollection of target information, and recollection of contextual (non-criterial) details.

Findings from a recent, unpublished online study designed in our lab (Arar et al., in prep, also preregistered on OSF) suggests that exposure to cognitive tasks impacts older adults’ global metacognitive beliefs such that they become more accurate in their assessments. We designed the current study to address limitations in the prior study and replicate its key findings. The below information—which has been amended from our previous study’s preregistration—provides background and further describes the motivation for our current study. Background Metacognition, or knowledge of one’s cognitive abilities, has been the subject of intense scientific inquiry in the cognitive aging literature. A key finding is that accurate self-assessments of one’s own cognitive ability (i.e., metacognitive accuracy) is a critical component of optimal self-regulation. Much of this literature has focused on task-based metacognitive judgments (e.g., judging whether or not an item will be recalled on a memory test) and the extent that older adults are able to make these judgments compared to younger adults (for reviews, see Castel, Middlebrooks, & McGillivray, 2016; Hertzog & Dunlosky, 2011; Hertzog & Hultsch, 2000), which has led to a wealth of literature on identifying appropriate methods for measuring task-based or local metacognitive accuracy (for review, see Fleming & Lau, 2014) and the factors (e.g., prior task exposure; see Rhodes, 2019) that impact said accuracy. However, in comparison to research on such task-based or local metacognitive judgments, one aspect of metacognition that has been relatively overlooked in the aging literature is people’s global metacognitive beliefs, or holistic assessments of one’s cognitive abilities (e.g., “In general, I believe my memory ability is poor.”). Compared to task-based or local metacognition, much less is known about how to measure global metacognitive accuracy or the factors that might impact these measurements. To date, most of the cognitive aging literature aimed at measuring global metacognitive accuracy has been in the context of clinical assessment of cognitive decline, as in the case of Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) or Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Here, a typical procedure to measure global metacognitive insight or accuracy is to administer questionnaires to participants to have them rate their own cognitive abilities (or severity of cognitive problems), and then to compare these ratings to those of an informant (usually a significant other or clinician), in order to identify the extent of the discrepancy (e.g., Clare, 2004; Leicht, Berwig, & Gertz, 2010; Starkstein et al., 2006). While this technique has produced several important findings, a major limitation is that this technique lacks an objectively anchored assessment of cognitive ability from which to compute global metacognitive accuracy. It is important to better understand global metacognition because global metacognition may exert a similar (if not greater) influence on everyday behaviors as local metacognition. Rouault and Fleming (2020) posit that we often draw upon our overall sense of confidence in our abilities when making everyday decisions, rather than solely relying on local confidence estimates. Thus, enhancing the accuracy of our global metacognitive beliefs may be an antecedent to improving everyday behaviors (e.g., compliance with medical advice and adhering to medication regimens; see Hargis & Castel, 2018). Additionally, examining dissociations between more global confidence estimates and objective abilities may prove valuable for clinical/diagnostic purposes as evidenced by previous work on self-efficacy (e.g., David et al., 2012; Rouault et al., 2018; Hoven et al., 2019) and mnemonic anosognosia (e.g., Clare, 2004), which has suggested that distorted global metacognitive beliefs may be an indicator of neurological/psychiatric disorders. This paucity of empirical investigation on global metacognition motivates the present research: We will determine the extent to which exposure to a battery of cognitive tasks influences older and younger adults’ self-reported global metacognitive beliefs. We will also explore the objectively measured accuracy of those global metacognitive beliefs. Results from the present study have the potential to help identify individuals who may have global metacognitive deficits and also inform novel interventions that might improve global metacognitive accuracy. Improving global metacognitive accuracy may be especially beneficial for older adults, who may need to possess accurate insight into their cognitive abilities in order to seek help for age-related cognitive decline.

Graphic organisers (GOs) are visual representations of information contained in the text that illustrate how concepts are connected and how text is structured. Metacognition (MC) is defined as “learning about learning”. GOs have been suggested to support metacognition, However, the literature on the relationship between GO and MC is large and heterogeneous. This means it is challenging for students and teachers to decide what kind of GO to use/ teach, and how to use/ teach them to facilitate students’ learning by enhancing their metacognition. In this study, a scoping review will be conducted aiming to provide a comprehensive map of the research on this topic by mainly answering the question of how does the use/ teach of Graphic organisers affect metacognition.

Motor metacognition refers to the knowledge about one’s actions and movements. Investigating motor metacognition is complex because, in principle, many aspects of a movement might be available to metacognitive monitoring. These aspects include movement intentions, motor preparation, motor execution, the sensory consequences that result from movement, as well as the sense of agency. Here we aim to tease apart some of these components and study their potential contribution to the metacognitive monitoring of movements. In particular, we will focus on motor imagery, the process of imagining movements without executing them (Fuchs et al., 2020). Motor imagery separates afferent from efferent processes informing motor metacognition, as metacognitive judgments about motor imagery (e.g., vividness) can only rely on efferent information, as no afferent sensory information is available since movements are not executed. In order to study metacognition of motor imagery, we will rely on the vast research that has been performed on the metacognition of visual imagery. In a seminal paper, Pearson and colleagues (2011) investigated whether metacognitive vividness ratings of visual imagery predict perceptual consequences of that imagery in a binocular rivalry task. Results showed that on trials where participants reported highly vivid imagery, participants had a stronger tendency towards perceiving the imagined visual pattern, as compared to less vivid trials. Additionally, participants with a greater general visual imagery ability showed a stronger perceptual biasing effect than participants with less visual imagery ability (Pearson et al., 2011). Here, we aimed at expanding these findings to the motor domain. This will reveal whether young healthy adults can metacognitively introspect their own motor imagery, and provide a means to further investigate interindividual differences and the neural mechanisms that this potential ability relies on. This preregistration is a modified version of an existing preregistration (10.17605/OSF.IO/KC2M7). Preliminary analysis of the data collected in line with that preregistration did not reveal the expected interaction between subjective vividness and the strength of the congruency effect. Potentially, the two possible movements used are too similar to each other, so that imagination of one movement facilitates the execution of the other movement. Therefore, we will modify the movements from a power and a precision grip to a crimp grip and a sideway pull, based on the findings of Bläsing and colleagues (2014). Based on pilots and experiences with the previous study, changes are introduced in the experimental motor imagery task and the movement apparatus.

Developing metacognition of belief revision regarding the existence of unobservable entities

Developing metacognition of belief revision regarding the existence of unobservable entities

Developing metacognition of belief revision regarding the existence of unobservable entities

Developing metacognition of belief revision regarding the existence of unobservable entities

There is an increasing interest in teaching students a metacognitive approach to learning in order to help improve their academic attainment (Braund & DeLuca, 2018; Hacker, Dunlosky, & Graesser, 2009; Özsoy, Memiş, & Temur, 2017; Perry, Lundie, & Golder, 2018). Research indicates that one of the primary factors, which affects student understanding of metacognition, is teacher understanding of metacognition (Perry et al., 2018; Wall & Hall, 2016; Wilson & Bai, 2010). This study will investigate teacher attitudes to metacognition and their use of strategies associated with metacognition in teaching. We will also investigate if there is any correlation between teachers use, and understanding of metacognition, and their perceived self-efficacy in the classroom.

There is an increasing interest in teaching students a metacognitive approach to learning in order to help improve their academic attainment (Braund & DeLuca, 2018; Hacker, Dunlosky, & Graesser, 2009; Özsoy, Memiş, & Temur, 2017; Perry, Lundie, & Golder, 2018). Research indicates that one of the primary factors, which affects student understanding of metacognition, is teacher understanding of metacognition (Perry et al., 2018; Wall & Hall, 2016; Wilson & Bai, 2010). This study will investigate teacher attitudes to metacognition and their use of strategies associated with metacognition in teaching. We will also investigate if there is any correlation between teachers use, and understanding of metacognition, and their perceived self-efficacy in the classroom.

Both cognitive processes and social theories factor into the ORE. When we process faces, we encode them either configurally or holistically, and there is an own-race advantage in both types of encoding (Rhodes et al., 2006). In addition, people are better at monitoring their memory for own-race faces than other-race faces (Arnold, 2013). Our memory and recognition abilities of other-race faces do not improve even when participants allocate more time to studying other-race faces (Tullis et al., 2014). There are also social mechanisms that influence the ORE. According to the categorization-individuation model (Hugenberg et al., 2010), we categorize own-race faces as part of our in-group, so we spend more of our cognitive resources attending to their faces individually. On the other hand, we classify other-race faces as part of an out-group and homogenize their faces. Thus, both cognitive/perceptual processes and social/motivational processes contribute to the ORE. In this study, we will examine how directing participants’ attention to the ORE and issues of diversity as well as practice affect the magnitude of the ORE.

Introduction: Intertemporal choice refers to a common type of decision in which we need to choose between a relatively small reward that we will receive relatively soon (also called sooner-smaller or SS reward) or a relatively large reward that we will receive later (i.e., later-larger -LL) option. Intertemporal choice has been a focal point in psychological and behavioral economics research for understanding impulsivity (Cohen et al., 2020; Lempert et al., 2019). Traditional discounting models, also called option-wise models, have long dominated the field of intertemporal choice (Laibson, 1997; Loewenstein & Thaler, 1989; Mazur et al., 1987). These models (including exponential and hyperbolic ones) have two basic assumptions. First, they postulate that people compute a single subjective value for each choice option by integrating the reward’s value and its delay time. Second they assume that individuals then base their choices on these subjective values (i.e., choose the option with the higher subjective value). Although discounting models have been successful in explaining intertemporal choices, it has been suggested that discounting models need extra parameters to explain some anomalies, such as magnitude effect and sub-additive effect. Recently another type of model has been proposed that differs in the way options are weighed against each other: The heuristic attribute-wise model posits that —when decision makers are making an intertemporal choice— they first compare the two option's attribute values within each attribute (Busemeyer et al., 2019; Dai & Busemeyer, 2014; Scholten & Read, 2010). In a second step, the value difference within each attribute would compete to generate the response. Accordingly, impatient behavior is assumed to be reflected in the ratio between the two attributes’ weights. For example, if someone has a larger ratio between the weights of the reward attribute versus the delay attribute (i.e., the reward magnitudes have a larger impact on choice than the delay times), individuals are more likely to choose the LL option. In comparison to the discounting model, the attribute-wise model is grounded in several psychological principles and has the potential to explain several anomalies (Dai et al., 2018; Ericson et al., 2015). The empirical battle between discounting and attribute-wise models has led to interesting insights. Both can account for various phenomena in intertemporal choice, including dynamic preference reversals (adding a front-end delay to SS and LL option would increase the chance of picking the LL option) and the magnitude effect (people become more patient if the reward magnitude increases). However, studies that compared model fits of discounting models and attribute-wise models showed mixed results, with some studies showing better performance for attribute-wise models and others - at least in certain conditions- better performance of discounting models (Ericson et al., 2015; Wulff & van den Bos, 2018). Recent studies have shown that eye-tracking data can be helpful to empirically distinguish between these two strategies. For example, Reeck et al. (2017) showed that people use a mixed visual search strategy of attribute-wise and option-wise fixation patterns. Namely participants with LL options in intertemporal choice are more likely to be chosen when using an attribute-wise strategy in visual search, whereas SS options have more chance to be preferred when adopting the discounting strategy. Additionally, experimentally inducing an attribute-wise search strategy can increase patience. Accordingly, a study by Fisher (2021) revealed that there is a higher likelihood of picking the LL options in trials where participants employed a more attribute-wise visual search strategy. While a mixture of decision strategies has been observed in the intertemporal choice task, the relationship between these strategies remains unclear. Self-reported confidence ratings, as a measure of self-performance, could potentially serve as a tool for understanding which decision strategy that participant would like to use. Previous research on confidence ratings in the context of intertemporal choice tasks has suggested that confidence primarily reflects the subjective value difference or choice difficulty between options. For example, Bulley et al. (2022) propose that confidence indicates the subjective value difference between two options and that higher levels of confidence arise when the subjective value of the SS option remarkably exceeds or is exceeded by the LL option. However, research in the risky choice task has indicated that confidence reports tend to be significantly higher when individuals select a certain option in comparison to a risky one (da Silva Castanheira et al., 2021). This finding underscores the possibility that, in the intertemporal choice task, the chosen option (LL or SS option) might similarly affect the reported confidence levels. Based on the previous eye-tracking studies, we expect that if reported confidence rating do have a relationship between the chosen option (LL or SS option), they also have a connection with the decision strategy (attribute-wise or discounting strategy). If people report higher confidence when choosing LL option, they might also use a more attribute-wise decision strategy. To test this hypothesis, we designed an intertemporal binary choice task with varying reward amount levels. Previous studies have shown that people’s probability of choosing the LL option as a function of increase in reward amount level (i.e., the magnitude effect). Our design enables us to influence participants' expressed preferences systematically, such that they are expected to make more patient choices with increasing reward levels. We have tested 60 participants online and this preregistration precedes the data analyses. To assess confidence and decision difficulty, following each choice, participants were instructed to indicate (a) their confidence regarding the choice they just made and (b) the difficulty they experienced making this choice. In addition, we used eye-tracking to record the gaze location to identify participants' decision strategies. In our analyses we will identify participants' decision strategies by quantitatively fitting different types of computational models (attribute-wise/option-wise) to their choice and RT data. We hypothesize that at higher reward levels, we will observe increased patience (the often-replicated magnitude effect), together with an increase in participants’ confidence and increased use of an attribute-wise decision-making strategy.

This article is from Frontiers in Psychology , volume 4 . Abstract The relationship between the objective accuracy of visual short-term memory (VSTM) representations and their subjective conscious experience is unknown. We investigated this issue by assessing how the objective and subjective components of VSTM in a delayed cue-target orientation discrimination task are affected by intervening distracters. On each trial, participants were shown a memory cue (a grating), the orientation of which they were asked to hold in memory. On approximately half of the trials, a distracter grating appeared during the maintenance interval; its orientation was either identical to that of the memory cue, or it differed by 10° or 40°. The distracters were masked and presented briefly, so they were only consciously perceived on a subset of trials. At the end of the delay period, a memory test probe was presented, and participants were asked to indicate whether it was tilted to the left or right relative to the memory cue (VSTM accuracy; objective performance). In order to assess subjective metacognition, participants were asked indicate the vividness of their memory for the original memory cue. Finally, participants were asked rate their awareness of the distracter. Results showed that objective VSTM performance was impaired by distracters only when the distracters were very different from the cue, and that this occurred with both subjectively visible and invisible distracters. Subjective metacognition, however, was impaired by distracters of all orientations, but only when these distracters were subjectively invisible. Our results thus indicate that the objective and subjective components of VSTM are to some extent dissociable.

This article is from Frontiers in Psychology , volume 4 . Abstract The relationship between the objective accuracy of visual short-term memory (VSTM) representations and their subjective conscious experience is unknown. We investigated this issue by assessing how the objective and subjective components of VSTM in a delayed cue-target orientation discrimination task are affected by intervening distracters. On each trial, participants were shown a memory cue (a grating), the orientation of which they were asked to hold in memory. On approximately half of the trials, a distracter grating appeared during the maintenance interval; its orientation was either identical to that of the memory cue, or it differed by 10° or 40°. The distracters were masked and presented briefly, so they were only consciously perceived on a subset of trials. At the end of the delay period, a memory test probe was presented, and participants were asked to indicate whether it was tilted to the left or right relative to the memory cue (VSTM accuracy; objective performance). In order to assess subjective metacognition, participants were asked indicate the vividness of their memory for the original memory cue. Finally, participants were asked rate their awareness of the distracter. Results showed that objective VSTM performance was impaired by distracters only when the distracters were very different from the cue, and that this occurred with both subjectively visible and invisible distracters. Subjective metacognition, however, was impaired by distracters of all orientations, but only when these distracters were subjectively invisible. Our results thus indicate that the objective and subjective components of VSTM are to some extent dissociable.