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Students confront great pressure while learning English due to an intense competition. In spite of trying hard, some students face struggling to acquire it well in comparison to high achievers. Thus, it is important to identify the key features that have an influence on second language learning and provide students with adequate results in learning. In this article, I will explore students` individual learner differences in terms of motivation, strategies, personality along with aptitude and prove that they play a great role in second language acquisition.

xxxiv, 312 pages ; 26 cm

This article is from Frontiers in Neuroanatomy , volume 7 . Abstract Striatal projecting neurons, known as medium spiny neurons (MSNs), segregate into two compartments called matrix and striosome in the mammalian striatum. The matrix domain is characterized by the presence of calbindin immunopositive (CB+) MSNs, not observed in the striosome subdivision. The existence of a similar CB+ MSN population has recently been described in two striatal structures in male zebra finch (a vocal learner bird): the striatal capsule and the Area X, a nucleus implicated in song learning. Female zebra finches show a similar pattern of CB+ MSNs than males in the developing striatum but loose these cells in juveniles and adult stages. In the present work we analyzed the existence and allocation of CB+ MSNs in the striatal domain of the vocal learner bird budgerigar (representative of psittaciformes order) and the non-vocal learner bird quail (representative of galliformes order). We studied the co-localization of CB protein with FoxP1, a transcription factor expressed in vertebrate striatal MSNs. We observed CB+ MSNs in the medial striatal domain of adult male and female budgerigars, although this cell type was missing in the potentially homologous nucleus for Area X in budgerigar. In quail, we observed CB+ cells in the striatal domain at developmental and adult stages but they did not co-localize with the MSN marker FoxP1. We also described the existence of the CB+ striatal capsule in budgerigar and quail and compared these results with the CB+ striatal capsule observed in juvenile zebra finches. Together, these results point out important differences in CB+ MSN distribution between two representative species of vocal learner and non-vocal learner avian orders (respectively the budgerigar and the quail), but also between close vocal learner bird families.

This article is from Frontiers in Neuroanatomy , volume 7 . Abstract Striatal projecting neurons, known as medium spiny neurons (MSNs), segregate into two compartments called matrix and striosome in the mammalian striatum. The matrix domain is characterized by the presence of calbindin immunopositive (CB+) MSNs, not observed in the striosome subdivision. The existence of a similar CB+ MSN population has recently been described in two striatal structures in male zebra finch (a vocal learner bird): the striatal capsule and the Area X, a nucleus implicated in song learning. Female zebra finches show a similar pattern of CB+ MSNs than males in the developing striatum but loose these cells in juveniles and adult stages. In the present work we analyzed the existence and allocation of CB+ MSNs in the striatal domain of the vocal learner bird budgerigar (representative of psittaciformes order) and the non-vocal learner bird quail (representative of galliformes order). We studied the co-localization of CB protein with FoxP1, a transcription factor expressed in vertebrate striatal MSNs. We observed CB+ MSNs in the medial striatal domain of adult male and female budgerigars, although this cell type was missing in the potentially homologous nucleus for Area X in budgerigar. In quail, we observed CB+ cells in the striatal domain at developmental and adult stages but they did not co-localize with the MSN marker FoxP1. We also described the existence of the CB+ striatal capsule in budgerigar and quail and compared these results with the CB+ striatal capsule observed in juvenile zebra finches. Together, these results point out important differences in CB+ MSN distribution between two representative species of vocal learner and non-vocal learner avian orders (respectively the budgerigar and the quail), but also between close vocal learner bird families.

This article is from Frontiers in Neuroanatomy , volume 7 . Abstract Striatal projecting neurons, known as medium spiny neurons (MSNs), segregate into two compartments called matrix and striosome in the mammalian striatum. The matrix domain is characterized by the presence of calbindin immunopositive (CB+) MSNs, not observed in the striosome subdivision. The existence of a similar CB+ MSN population has recently been described in two striatal structures in male zebra finch (a vocal learner bird): the striatal capsule and the Area X, a nucleus implicated in song learning. Female zebra finches show a similar pattern of CB+ MSNs than males in the developing striatum but loose these cells in juveniles and adult stages. In the present work we analyzed the existence and allocation of CB+ MSNs in the striatal domain of the vocal learner bird budgerigar (representative of psittaciformes order) and the non-vocal learner bird quail (representative of galliformes order). We studied the co-localization of CB protein with FoxP1, a transcription factor expressed in vertebrate striatal MSNs. We observed CB+ MSNs in the medial striatal domain of adult male and female budgerigars, although this cell type was missing in the potentially homologous nucleus for Area X in budgerigar. In quail, we observed CB+ cells in the striatal domain at developmental and adult stages but they did not co-localize with the MSN marker FoxP1. We also described the existence of the CB+ striatal capsule in budgerigar and quail and compared these results with the CB+ striatal capsule observed in juvenile zebra finches. Together, these results point out important differences in CB+ MSN distribution between two representative species of vocal learner and non-vocal learner avian orders (respectively the budgerigar and the quail), but also between close vocal learner bird families.

The reported research was designed to investigate the impact of learner control on performance and anxiety in a computer-assisted instruction (CAI) task. The first phase entailed the development of a two-hour CAI program on the identification of edible plants. The second phase was experimentation to determine the effectiveness of learner control. Each of 162 undergraduate student subjects was placed in one of four groups: a control group who always used mnemonic devices, a control group who never used them, and two experimental groups who were given learner control over access to mnemonics, but differed in the extent of instruction on the use of that control. Responses to a state anxiety measure, learner control requests for mnemonics, and errors committed on segment and final tests were the dependent variables. Measures of individual differences were taken in the areas of task specific memory, locus of control, and achievement via independence. Providing mnemonic devices didn't have a facilitating effect, and thus, learner control, which depended on the devices, was not successful in reducing anxiety as predicted. (Author/WH)

This study mainly investigates language anxiety and its relationship to the use of learning strategies and multiple intelligences among young learners in an EFL educational context. The participants were composed of 212 fifth- and sixth-graders from elementary schools in central Taiwan. Findings indicated that most participants generally experienced a mild level of anxiety in the EFL classroom. However, at least a quarter of the full sample experienced an above-average level of anxiety when learning the target language. These students tended to be most anxious when (1) feeling that other students had better English performance, (2) being called on to speak in the English class, and (3) feeling afraid of being left behind in the English class. Overall, students were most likely to feel anxious due to worry over inadequate language performance and fear of being evaluated negatively by others. Furthermore, the current findings indicated a significant negative correlation between language anxiety and strategy use among the young EFL children. Students who had greater strategy use were less likely to feel anxiety. Interestingly, the use of social strategies had the strongest relationship with language anxiety among the young learners. Another learner variable, multiple intelligences, was found to be significantly related to both strategy use and anxiety; its relationship with strategy use seemed to be much stronger than that with anxiety. All six strategy categories were found to have significant correlations with multiple intelligences. Implications derived from the results are discussed in the paper.

In an era where the ubiquity of the English language intersects seamlessly with global entertainment, today’s youth naturally absorb the language while engaging in leisure activities. Delving beyond conventional pedagogical boundaries, this book illuminates how extramural activities, from cinematic experiences to digital gaming, can be exploited as resources for learning English. Employing a rigorous empirical framework, the present research project uncovers evidence that learners who engage in extramural English activities demonstrate higher English learning motivation, reduced English speaking anxiety, and enhanced willingness to communicate in English. Written for language professionals and researchers, this synthesis of empirical results aims to enrich the discourse on English as a Foreign Language learning and teaching. By unravelling the relationship between leisure, motivation, and individual learner differences in general, this book aims to provide readers with important research findings relevant in current foreign language education.

The present study (n = 761, 58.1% female) examined whether or not individual learner variables (gender, ethnicity, SES) contribute to differences in mathematics performance as measured by test score and mathematics grade for fifth and sixth grade mathematics students in Alabama. Multiple regression analysis revealed that gender and SES show negatively significant, but small, relationships with mathematics performance as measured by test score and mathematics grade. Students receiving free-reduced lunch (SES) scored lower on the mathematics test than those students not receiving free-reduced lunch. Gender (p less than 0.001) and free-reduced lunch (p less than 0.001) significantly contributed to differences in mathematics performance as measured by mathematics grade with female students and those students receiving free-reduced lunch having lower grades in their current mathematics class. Ethnicity was not significant in predicting mathematics performance as measured by test score or mathematics grade. (Contains 2 tables.)

Although ITSs are supposed to adapt to differences among learners, so far, little attention has been paid to how they might adapt to differences in how students learn from help. When students study with an Intelligent Tutoring System, they may receive multiple types of help, but may not comprehend and make use of this help in the same way. To measure the extent of such individual differences, we propose two new logistic regression models, ProfHelp and ProfHelp-ID. Both models extend the Performance Factors Analysis model (Pavlik, Cen & Koedinger, 2009) with parameters that represent the effect of hints on performance on the same step on which the help was given. Both models adjust for general student proficiency, prior practice on knowledge components, and knowledge component difficulty. Multilevel Bayesian implementations of these models were fit to data on student interactions with a geometry ITS, where students received on-demand problem-relevant help ranging from first-level hints that facilitate application of principles to specific and immediately actionable bottom-out hints. The model comparison showed that in this dataset students differ in their individual hint-processing proficiency and these differences depend on hint levels. These results suggest that we can assess specific learning skills, e.g., making sense of instructional text, and in future work we may be able to remediate and improve such skills. (Contains 2 figures, 4 tables, and 5 footnotes.) [For the complete proceedings, "Proceedings of the International Conference on Educational Data Mining (EDM) (5th, Chania, Greece, June 19-21, 2012)," see ED537074.]

This study investigates differences in instructional and learner factors between two groups of learners exposed to online only and blended delivery formats, respectively, in an effort to compare learning outcomes and other instructional variables between online and blended delivery methods. Findings indicated that no significant differences existed in learning outcomes; however, significant differences existed in several instructional and learner factors between the two delivery format groups. Discussions about improving online or blended delivery method are presented based upon the research findings. (Contains 7 tables.)

The reported research was designed to investigate the impact of learner control on performance and anxiety in a computer assisted instruction task. This, the third phase of a project, substituted pictorial mediators for mnemonic devices as the facilitating variable in an instruction program on edible plants. Four experimental groups were formed with the facilitating variable crossed with information on the utilization of learner control. Responses to a state anxiety measure, learner control requests for pictures, and errors committed on segment and final tests were the dependent variables. Measures of individual differences were taken in the areas of task specific memory, locus of control, and achievement via independence. The affect of pictorial mediation was statistically effective, yet learner control, which depended on the facilitating variable, was not statistically different. The achievement via independence measure was able to predict individual differences in learner control behavior. It is concluded that the utility of learner control depends on the instructional situation. (Author/WH)

Two assumptions in support of learner-controlled computer-assisted instruction (CAI) are that (1) instruction administered under learner control will be less aversive than if administered under program control, and (2) the student is sufficiently aware of his learning state to make, in most instances, his own instructional decisions. Some 130 college student subjects were exposed to a CAI module on 12 edible plants native to Texas. The program for one group included pictures of the plants to help in their identification. A second group was never shown the pictures, and the third group had the option of choosing whether or not they wanted to see the pictures. It was anticipated that those subjects having an option would almost always elect to see the pictures. To provide for investigating individual differences in the use of learner control, a second, less appealing option was introduced--a review of the plants' critical features. It was concluded that learner control over a facilitating treatment did not reduce state of anxiety; the student's ability to use learner control effectively appeared to be a function of personality traits as well as cognitive skills. This suggests that state of anxiety tends to be task specific, and that the relationship of tasks to anxiety should be explored in subsequent research. (Author/DGC)

The document is the fourth in a series of research projects aimed at determining whether learning might be enhanced by employing instructional methods which differ in design and use as a function of learner characteristics. Based on inference drawn from studies in this series and other research literature, a model was developed enabling the simultaneous examination of the effects of learner characteristics, types of learning, instructional methods, and subject matter variables on achievement. Each of six experimental courses was administered to Navy enlisted men who were previously tested with instruments which yielded a total of 39 measures of aptitude, interest, and personality characteristics. Correlation and regression analyses were made to find any meaningful interactive relationships existing between learner characteristics and types of learning or types of subject matter.

Online learning constitutes the most popular distance-learning method, with flexibility, accessibility, visibility, manageability and availability as its core features. However, current research indicates that its efficacy is not consistent across all learners. This study aimed to modify and extend the factors of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) to examine perceived satisfaction of an Arabic sample in online learning. The integrated factors in the modified model includes: deep level (learning styles), surface level (gender), and cognitive (online self-efficacy) factors. Learning styles were chosen as a central factor. Hence, the online course was purposefully developed to support one pole in each dimension of Felder and Silverman Learning Styles Model (FSLSM) in order to reveal the pedagogical implications of learning styles on learner satisfaction. A total of 70 learners participated voluntarily in the research. At the end of the online course, they were requested to fill in two questionnaires: the Index of Learning Styles (ILS) and a standard questionnaire. The psychometric properties of the latter were firstly analysed to validate the instrument. Then, Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) was conducted to examine the proposed hypotheses. The model achieves an acceptable fit and explains 44.8% of variance. Perceived usefulness represented the best predictor, whereas online self-efficacy and perceived ease of use failed to show a direct impact on perceived satisfaction. Furthermore, neither learning styles nor gender diversity had direct influence on the dependent factors. Accordingly, the research suggested that other variables may have to be integrated to enhance the power of the model.

This paper explores the challenges faced by teachers and educators in the online classroom, especially in light of existing learner differences among students stemming from intelligence, socioeconomic status (SES), culture, gender, among other factors. The author examines the characteristics of the online classroom and looks at learner differences as significant factors impacting teacher responsibilities in the online setting. Several challenges common to facilitated online learning (FOL) and independent online learning (IOL) in the online classroom are examined and brought into perspective as the author applies social science theories such as self-efficacy, multiple intelligences theory, social distance theory and comparative homogeneity, pedagogy and classroom management theories in analyzing and addressing these challenges. The author makes several recommendations for online teachers and educators to address the problems and challenges that are present in the online classroom and then explores the implications for teaching and learning. Finally, the author espouses a need for research into the major issue under discussion.

This paper examines a research paradigm that is particularly suited to experimentation-related computer-based instruction and integrated learning systems. The main assumption of the model is that one of the most powerful capabilities of computer-based instruction, and specifically of integrated learning systems, is the capacity to adapt instruction to the individual differences that exist among learners. The model is applied to an instructional treatment through a popular integrated learning system from Computer Curriculum Corporation (CCC). The problem of adaptive instruction is to diagnose, in any group of learners, where each is located in relation to individual learning characteristics and the knowledge and performances required at a given point in instruction. The research paradigm to be applied uses a microanalysis technique, based on a regression model proposed by previous researchers, that operationalized variables for each individual. Three figures illustrate the model and discussion. (Contains 49 references.) (SLD)

In an effort to compare learning outcomes and other instructional conditions between online and blended delivery methods, this study was conducted to analyze the differences in instructional and learner factors between two groups of learners exposed to online only and blended delivery formats. Findings, discussion, and implications of differences in learning outcomes between the two delivery formats to improve either the online or blended delivery method were included. (Contains 7 tables.)

Throughout the paper, the issues of individual differences in web-based learning, also known as online instruction, online training or distance education were examined and implications for designing distance education were discussed. Although the main purpose was to identify differences in learners' characteristics such as cognitive, affective, physiological and social factors that affect learning in a web-enhanced environment, the questions of how the web could be used to reinforce learning, what kinds of development ideas, theories and models are currently being used to design and deliver online instruction, and finally what evidence for the effectiveness of using World Wide Web (WWW) for learning and instruction has been reported, were also analyzed to extend theoretical and epistemogical understanding of web-based learning.