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Speech samples were taken every two weeks for a period of 40 weeks from a five-year-old Japanese girl learning English as a second language through her environment. The presence or absence of some grammatical morphemes in linguistic or nonlinguistic obligatory context was scored; using Brown's (1973) criterion for morpheme acquisition, a rank order of these morphemes was determined. The order obtained was different from those of native English-speaking children. Possible determinants for this rank order are hypothesized in terms of (1) presence/nonpresence of that semantic notion expressed by those individual English morphemes in Japanese, (2) a principle of simplicity, and (3) phonological interference. (Author)

THIS PAPER (WHICH WAS PREPARED FOR A SYMPOSIUM ON "THE STUDY OF PERSONALITY" AT RICE UNIVERSITY, HOUSTON, NOVEMBER, 1966) REVIEWS THE ADVANCES MADE BY INTERDISCIPLINARY LINGUISTIC RESEARCH INTO THE EFFECTS OF EARLY BILINGUALISM. USING THE SAUSSUREAN MODEL OF THE LINGUISTIC SIGN, A DISTINCTION IS MADE BETWEEN "COORDINATE" AND "COMPOUND" BILINGUALS. COMPOUND BILINGUALISM TENDS TO RESULT WHEN THE TWO LANGUAGES ARE ACQUIRED IN A SPEECH COMMUNITY OFFERING THE CHILD EQUAL AND SIMULTANEOUS EXPOSURE TO THE TWO LANGUAGES AND WHERE THE SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF THE TWO LANGUAGES ARE MINIMALLY DIFFERENTIATED. THE MORE TYPICAL BILINGUAL SITUATION IS ONE IN WHICH ONE OF THE LANGUAGES IS SOCIOLOGICALLY DOMINANT AND IN WHICH THE SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF THE TWO LANGUAGES ARE DIFFERENT. WHEN BILINGUALS ARE STUDIED IN CONTEXTS WHERE THEIR BILINGUAL OR BICULTURAL BACKGROUND DOES NOT AUTOMATICALLY ASSIGN THEM LOWER STATUS WITHIN A MONOLINGUAL COMMUNITY, IT CAN BE SHOWN "THAT BILINGUALISM IS ASSOCIATED WITH AND MAY IN FACT BE FACILITATIVE OF SIGNIFICANTLY SUPERIOR PERFORMANCES ON BOTH VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL INTELLIGENCE TESTS." CASES OF BILINGUAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGY CAN BE TRACED TO A "CRISIS IN SOCIAL AND PERSONAL IDENTITY ENGENDERED BY ANTAGONISTIC ACCULTURATIVE PRESSURES DIRECTED ON A BICULTURAL COMMUNITY BY A SOCIOLOGICALLY DOMINANT MONOLINGUAL SOCIETY." APPENDED TO THIS PAPER IS A SIX-PAGE BIBLIOGRAPHY ON BILINGUALISM. (JD)

When bilingualism is brought up as a term, is commonly associated with just the ability to speak two languages, and some other factors that come with this term are not considered in order to give an identity to the individuals who are considered bilinguals. Some aspects of this environment, for example, the background that individuals in how to acquire the language play an important role in order to see how those individuals perceive some of the aspects that are implied in linguistics studies. Another thing to consider is how the social environment that individuals have affects their language development and by the same, it can provide them a feeling of belongingness in certain environments that are around them. Also, these differences in the background of bilinguals can make them have a different perception of each aspect because even if the development of two languages has reached the same goal, the process that those individuals followed to achieve those goals was different and could make them get a different perspective due to the different aspects that each individual identifies in their different process. All of the aspects that are associated with the acquisition of a second language will be analyzed in this paper and will provide the data that allow the identification of each perspective of two different groups of bilinguals, and will make clearer if those aspects, has a big influence on language development.

When bilingualism is brought up as a term, is commonly associated with just the ability to speak two languages, and some other factors that come with this term are not considered in order to give an identity to the individuals who are considered bilinguals. Some aspects of this environment, for example, the background that individuals in how to acquire the language play an important role in order to see how those individuals perceive some of the aspects that are implied in linguistics studies. Another thing to consider is how the social environment that individuals have affects their language development and by the same, it can provide them a feeling of belongingness in certain environments that are around them. Also, these differences in the background of bilinguals can make them have a different perception of each aspect because even if the development of two languages has reached the same goal, the process that those individuals followed to achieve those goals was different and could make them get a different perspective due to the different aspects that each individual identifies in their different process. All of the aspects that are associated with the acquisition of a second language will be analyzed in this paper and will provide the data that allow the identification of each perspective of two different groups of bilinguals, and will make clearer if those aspects, has a big influence on language development.

Few studies looked at the effects of bilingualism on young children’s ToM development under adverse environments, such as poverty exposure. This project aims to explore whether the bilingual advantage in theory of mind can be generalized to children living in poverty. In addition, it will investigate what mechanism may explain the bilingual advantage on children’s ToM performance.

Few studies looked at the effects of bilingualism on young children’s ToM development under adverse environments, such as poverty exposure. This project aims to explore whether the bilingual advantage in theory of mind can be generalized to children living in poverty. In addition, it will investigate what mechanism may explain the bilingual advantage on children’s ToM performance.

A STUDY TO DEVELOP INSTRUMENTS TO MEASURE CHILD BILINGUALISM AND BICULTURAL SOCIALIZATION WAS CONDUCTED IN DEL RIO, TEXAS, A MEXICAN-AMERICAN COMMUNITY IN WHICH SCHOOL IS TAUGHT IN BOTH SPANISH AND ENGLISH. THREE INSTRUMENTS WERE DEVELOPED--(1) A SERIES OF 6 TESTS FOR MEASURING LINGUISTIC COMPETENCE IN ENGLISH, (2) A SIMILAR SERIES OF 6 TESTS FOR SPANISH, AND (3) A SERIES OF 3 INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING SOCIALIZATION. TEST BATTERIES FOCUSED ON THE ORAL-AURAL USE OF LANGUAGE IN REALISTIC SCHOOL SITUATIONS. A RANDOM SAMPLE OF 97 FIRST GRADERS WAS GROUPED INTO 4 EXPERIMENTAL SECTIONS TAUGHT BILINGUALLY BY MEXICAN-AMERICAN TEACHERS AND INTO 4 CONTROL SECTIONS TAUGHT IN ENGLISH BY ENGLISH TEACHERS. THE CONTROL GROUP CHILDREN WERE GIVEN THE ENGLISH SERIES AND INVENTORY OF SOCIALIZATION WHILE THE EXPERIMENTAL CHILDREN WERE GIVEN BOTH THE ENGLISH AND SPANISH SERIES AND THE INVENTORY. ANALYSIS OF TEST RESULTS SHOWED THAT THE EXPERIMENTAL SUBJECTS WERE AS COMPETENT IN ENGLISH AS THOSE LEARNING ONLY IN ENGLISH AND ALSO BETTER ADJUSTED SOCIALLY. TEST INSTRUMENT VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY WAS DETERMINED AND AN ITEM ANALYSIS CARRIED OUT. APPENDIXES WHICH INCLUDE FACSIMILES OF TEST INSTRUMENTS AND ANALYSES OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA COMPRISE MORE THAN HALF OF THE REPORT. (MS)

The report discusses the first- and second-language development, oral and written, of native English-speakers and native Spanish-speakers in the two-way immersion (TWI) program at Key Elementary School (Arlington, Virginia). Data were drawn from classroom observation from 1994-96, student performance measures, and student work samples. Three Spanish-speaking and three English-speaking students were chosen at each grade level for more focused observation regarding language use and participation patterns. Results show that, in general, students were observed using the language of instruction while talking to the teacher and engaged in academic activities. In the lower grades, native English-speakers were sometimes observed addressing the teacher in English during Spanish time. Use of Spanish during English time was rare. Oral English proficiency developed fully in all students. While all students achieved communicative competency by grade 5, a gap in Spanish fluency remained between native Spanish-speakers and native English-speakers. In general, all writing samples were of high quality, with the English comparable for both native-language groups. In Spanish the essays of native-speakers tended to be more sophisticated. Two samples by the same student are analyzed briefly. Implications of the findings for program development are discussed. Contains 22 references. (MSE)

This review conducted to map existing literature evidence regarding the use of digital learning media on the development of second languages or bilingualism in children aged 6-12 years to give additional new information and formulate future primary research, especially in the fields of learning design and psycholinguistic.

This 2-volume document reports on a longitudinal study of the relationship between bilingualism and cognitive ability. Previous research has suggested that bilingualism might have positive effects on cognitive ability. This study focuses on effects for "non-balanced bilinguals," those who do not have equal levels of proficiency in both languages. Following an extensive review of research on bilingualism, the study is described. Subjects were elementary students in a Spanish-English bilingual program. Cognitive abilities measured included English and Spanish verbal ability, metalinguistic ability, nonlinguistic ability, and social perspective taking. Both cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses showed statistically reliable effects of bilingualism on cognitive abilities, although magnitude and reliability varied over time and grade level. The results in general support the position of a positive relationship between bilingualism and cognitive ability, even in non-balanced bilinguals. The appendix in volume 1 is an annotated bibliography of research on bilingualism and intelligence, while volume 2 consists of 3 appendices: a questionnaire sent to parents of study subjects, a preliminary report of a demographic study of all Hispanic students in New Haven giving statistical data in tables and figures, and measures used in the study including extensive picture tests. (KH)

Human language and cognition do not develop independently of each other but are intricately intertwined in various ways. This contribution presents the interplay between linguistic and cognitive abilities of learners at the individual level and relates them to the level of external contextual factors in social and educational environments. In empirical research, it is important to differentiate between so-called proximal and distal external factors: A causal effect on the individual learner can be primarily assumed through the direct stimulation of proximal factors, i.e., in personal interaction (Proximity of Stimulation approach, Kersten 2020, 2023). Therefore, external factors should be differentiated and special attention should be given to the proximal factors as direct influencing factors in empirical studies. This contribution begins with some terminological clarifications. In the following section, the connections between individual linguistic and cognitive development are discussed using selected variables in both directions (internal perspective). Initially, findings regarding the influence of multilingualism on cognitive abilities are examined, followed by the influence of cognitive abilities on L2 acquisition in the reverse direction. Finally, the contribution focuses on external contextual factors. Findings on family contextual factors such as linguistic and social background are presented. Lastly, educational contextual factors are explored, particularly discussing whether and how instructional factors can contribute to creating conducive conditions for mutual development in both domains, cognition and language, and potentially compensating for disadvantaged learner groups (cf. Kersten 2019). [This is the translated version of originally published title "Der Zusammenhang von kognitiven Fähigkeiten und Mehrsprachigkeit im frühen L2-Erwerb: Individuelle und externe Variablen," which was published in: "Language Education and Acquisition Research: Focusing Early Language Learning," edited by H. Böttger et al., Klinkhardt, 2020, pp. 82-116.]