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Research on themes that offer practical and theoretical bases for teaching language and content simultaneously is discussed. Three theoretical perspectives are cited that are relevant to this approach: the input hypothesis (Krashen's monitor model), the bilingual proficienty theories (Cummins' language proficiency model and the views of its critics), and language socialization theories. Research on cognition is reviewed, with emphasis on the area of knowledge structures. It is suggested that knowledge structures underlie subject-area knowledge and thinking skills and are cross-cultural, and that they also underlie expository reading and writing knowledge. It is further suggested that student awareness of knowledge structures and information patterns improves the retention of subject matter. Research on cognition is also reviewed regarding "student tasks," or those metacognitive strategies that language learners use in order to gain second language knowledge. The idea is proposed that student tasks may form the basis for teaching and learning strategies such as cooperative learning and English for specific purposes. It is suggested that knowledge structures and student tasks are complementary and that more research should explore their relationship. Contains approximately 145 references. (LB)

The goal of this research was to develop and test a method for eliciting knowledge structures used in problem solving. The work was carried out simultaneously in two domains, engineering mechanics and video recording. Two studies resulted in the adaptation of a question probe method for eliciting relevant knowledge structures prior to problem solving. Two additional studies showed that administration of the question probes did not significantly impact subsequent problem solving. Answers from the question probes were therefore translated into a conceptual structure for each subject. A simple associative search model operating upon these structures was able to predict 87% and 93% of individual problem solving activities in the engineering and video recording domains, respectively. The predictive capability of the graphs indicate the central role of knowledge structures capability of the graphs indicate the central role of knowledge structures in problem solving processes, at least under circumstances such as those tested. A fifth study evaluated the validity of the conceptual graphs by comparing them with free recall protocols. (KR)

The purpose of this longitudinal investigation was to assess the nature, development, and changes in preservice secondary science teachers' (n=12) conceptions/knowledge structures of subject matter and pedagogy as they proceeded through a fifth-year Master of Arts in Teaching (MAT) program. Open ended written questionnaires were used in Phase I of this investigation. Five subject matter questionnaires and five pedagogy questionnaires were completed over the span of the entire MAT preparation program. In Phase II, a 45-minute video taped interview was conducted. It appears that preservice science teachers do not have well formed and integrated subject matter or pedagogy knowledge structures. (PR)

A study was conducted to examine the process of the development of knowledge structures concerning events. Specifically, it investigated (1) the ways in which individuals build theories about events as they experience them; (2) the number of events an individual must experience, and how similar those events must be, before he or she begins to generalize about them; and (3) how the content of an event knowledge structure changes as it becomes based on increasing amounts of experience. Eighty-nine graduate students were given descriptions of events to read. The number of events (one, two, three, or four) contained in the stories and the level of their similarity were manipulated. The subjects were asked to write "what happened" in the stories they had read and these responses were then content analyzed. The results showed that subjects exposed to only one event tended to write episodic scripts, with concrete details about the event. Subjects exposed to two or three similar events wrote somewhat more abstract scripts, and those exposed to four similar events wrote the most abstract scripts. Less evidence of generalization was present when subjects read two, three, or four dissimilar events. The findings suggested that the content of inductive theories changes as those theories become based on increasing amounts of supporting evidence. (Author/FL)

This manual describes two methods of assessing college students' conceptual structures in the interest of student evaluation. The focus is on the mental frameworks (conceptual structures) that enable students to remember and apply facts and theories. The guide offers two methods, the "ordered-tree" and the "fill-in-the-structure." An introduction discusses the general uses of the techniques, modes of assessment, and the measures that each offers. Section I describes the ordered tree technique including preparation of the stimuli, materials, administration, scoring (examples included), and interpretation of results. Section II describes the fill-in-the-structure method including preparation of the materials, administration (two figures from an ecology course included), scoring, and interpretation. A third section presents some considerations of similar and different aspects of the two techniques to assist instructors in selecting the best method for the situation. An appendix contains an example of scoring the fill-in-the-structure task with detailed explanation and eight references. A computer disk to aid in the analysis of the ordered-tree task has also been developed. (JB)

Although large amounts of programming knowledge are available to human programmers in the form of books and articles, very little of this knowledge is available in a form suitable for use by a machine in performing programming tasks automatically. The principal goal of the research reported here is the explication of programming knowledge to a sufficient level of detail that it can be used effectively by a machine. The programming task considered in this experiment is that of constructing concrete implementations of abstract algorithms in the domain of symbolic programming. Knowledge about several aspects of symbolic programming has been expressed as a collection of four hundred refinement rules. The rules deal primarily with collections and mappings and ways of manipulating such structures, including several enumeration, sorting and searching techniques. The principal representation techniques covered include the representation of sets as linked lists and arrays (both ordered and unordered), and the representation of mappings as tables, sets of pairs, property list markings, and inverted mappings (indexed by range element). In addition to these general constructs, many low-level programming details are covered (such as the use of variables to store values).

Although large amounts of programming knowledge are available to human programmers in the form of books and articles, very little of this knowledge is available in a form suitable for use by a machine in performing programming tasks automatically. The principal goal of the research reported here is the explication of programming knowledge to a sufficient level of detail that it can be used effectively by a machine. The programming task considered in this experiment is that of constructing concrete implementations of abstract algorithms in the domain of symbolic programming. Knowledge about several aspects of symbolic programming has been expressed as a collection of four hundred refinement rules. The rules deal primarily with collections and mappings and ways of manipulating such structures, including several enumeration, sorting and searching techniques. The principal representation techniques covered include the representation of sets as linked lists and arrays (both ordered and unordered), and the representation of mappings as tables, sets of pairs, property list markings, and inverted mappings (indexed by range element). In addition to these general constructs, many low-level programming details are covered (such as the use of variables to store values).

Although large amounts of programming knowledge are available to human programmers in the form of books and articles, very little of this knowledge is available in a form suitable for use by a machine in performing programming tasks automatically. The principal goal of the research reported here is the explication of programming knowledge to a sufficient level of detail that it can be used effectively by a machine. The programming task considered in this experiment is that of constructing concrete implementations of abstract algorithms in the domain of symbolic programming. Knowledge about several aspects of symbolic programming has been expressed as a collection of four hundred refinement rules. The rules deal primarily with collections and mappings and ways of manipulating such structures, including several enumeration, sorting and searching techniques. The principal representation techniques covered include the representation of sets as linked lists and arrays (both ordered and unordered), and the representation of mappings as tables, sets of pairs, property list markings, and inverted mappings (indexed by range element). In addition to these general constructs, many low-level programming details are covered (such as the use of variables to store values).

This open access book constitutes the thoroughly refereed post-conference proceedings of the 6th International Workshop on Graph Structures for Knowledge Representation and Reasoning, GKR 2020, held virtually in September 2020, associated with ECAI 2020, the 24th European Conference on Artificial Intelligence. The 7 revised full papers presented together with 2 invited contributions were reviewed and selected from 9 submissions. The contributions address various issues for knowledge representation and reasoning and the common graph-theoretic background, which allows to bridge the gap between the different communities.

This open access book constitutes the thoroughly refereed post-conference proceedings of the 6th International Workshop on Graph Structures for Knowledge Representation and Reasoning, GKR 2020, held virtually in September 2020, associated with ECAI 2020, the 24th European Conference on Artificial Intelligence. The 7 revised full papers presented together with 2 invited contributions were reviewed and selected from 9 submissions. The contributions address various issues for knowledge representation and reasoning and the common graph-theoretic background, which allows to bridge the gap between the different communities.

This open access book constitutes the thoroughly refereed post-conference proceedings of the 6th International Workshop on Graph Structures for Knowledge Representation and Reasoning, GKR 2020, held virtually in September 2020, associated with ECAI 2020, the 24th European Conference on Artificial Intelligence. The 7 revised full papers presented together with 2 invited contributions were reviewed and selected from 9 submissions. The contributions address various issues for knowledge representation and reasoning and the common graph-theoretic background, which allows to bridge the gap between the different communities.

This open access book constitutes the thoroughly refereed post-conference proceedings of the 6th International Workshop on Graph Structures for Knowledge Representation and Reasoning, GKR 2020, held virtually in September 2020, associated with ECAI 2020, the 24th European Conference on Artificial Intelligence. The 7 revised full papers presented together with 2 invited contributions were reviewed and selected from 9 submissions. The contributions address various issues for knowledge representation and reasoning and the common graph-theoretic background, which allows to bridge the gap between the different communities.

This open access book constitutes the thoroughly refereed post-conference proceedings of the 6th International Workshop on Graph Structures for Knowledge Representation and Reasoning, GKR 2020, held virtually in September 2020, associated with ECAI 2020, the 24th European Conference on Artificial Intelligence. The 7 revised full papers presented together with 2 invited contributions were reviewed and selected from 9 submissions. The contributions address various issues for knowledge representation and reasoning and the common graph-theoretic background, which allows to bridge the gap between the different communities.

Based on the hypothesis that teachers possessing extensive and coherent knowledge structures are the most effective teachers, this paper explores the use of a modified ordered tree (OT) technique for measuring teachers' knowledge structures. Two questions are posed: (1) Can a modified OT technique be used to measure teachers' knowledge structures? and (2) Is there a relationship between teachers' knowledge structure scores and their ability to be adaptive during instruction? Using 8 experts, 16 novices, and 4 uninstructed learners, 3 studies were conducted. Results indicate that the modified OT technique describes longitudinal changes in novice teachers' knowledge structures during reading methods course instruction, and that novices' knowledge structures are associated with adaptive instructional actions. Implications for teaching and teacher education are suggested. (Author)

Presented is a study of eighth-grade students' academic problem-solving ability based on their knowledge structures, or their information stored in semantic or long-term memory. The authors describe a technique that they developed to probe knowledge structures with an extension of the card-sort method. The method, known as the Concept Structure Analysis Technique (ConSAT), allows for students to produce graphic structural representations directly, which eliminates the need for statistical procedures to transform data from raw form to graphic form. The advantages of the technique are: (1) having the ability to search for relations between concepts; (2) the ability to analyze structural changes of individuals resulting from instruction; and (3) the ability to search for the integration of more than one kind of structure. (Author/SA)

Presented is a study of eighth-grade students' academic problem-solving ability based on their knowledge structures, or their information stored in semantic or long-term memory. The authors describe a technique that they developed to probe knowledge structures with an extension of the card-sort method. The method, known as the Concept Structure Analysis Technique (ConSAT), allows for students to produce graphic structural representations directly, which eliminates the need for statistical procedures to transform data from raw form to graphic form. The advantages of the technique are: (1) having the ability to search for relations between concepts; (2) the ability to analyze structural changes of individuals resulting from instruction; and (3) the ability to search for the integration of more than one kind of structure. (Author/SA)

Presented is a study of eighth-grade students' academic problem-solving ability based on their knowledge structures, or their information stored in semantic or long-term memory. The authors describe a technique that they developed to probe knowledge structures with an extension of the card-sort method. The method, known as the Concept Structure Analysis Technique (ConSAT), allows for students to produce graphic structural representations directly, which eliminates the need for statistical procedures to transform data from raw form to graphic form. The advantages of the technique are: (1) having the ability to search for relations between concepts; (2) the ability to analyze structural changes of individuals resulting from instruction; and (3) the ability to search for the integration of more than one kind of structure. (Author/SA)

Presented is a study of eighth-grade students' academic problem-solving ability based on their knowledge structures, or their information stored in semantic or long-term memory. The authors describe a technique that they developed to probe knowledge structures with an extension of the card-sort method. The method, known as the Concept Structure Analysis Technique (ConSAT), allows for students to produce graphic structural representations directly, which eliminates the need for statistical procedures to transform data from raw form to graphic form. The advantages of the technique are: (1) having the ability to search for relations between concepts; (2) the ability to analyze structural changes of individuals resulting from instruction; and (3) the ability to search for the integration of more than one kind of structure. (Author/SA)

Rationale Successful navigation of the social world is largely dependent on our ability to form accurate impressions of others, evaluate relevant information, and make appropriate decisions based on valid informational cues. Naturally, whenever people are involved emotions are too; and this social cognitive process is no exception. In fact, the link between feeling and thought has been of great interest to social cognition researchers for decades. In particular, the regulation of cognitive processing strategy by affective states has been a core postulate of several popular theories concerning affect and social cognition for the last fifty years (Bless & Burger, 2017; Bless & Fiedler, 2006; Clore & Huntsinger, 2007; Forgas, 1995; Schwarz, 1990; Schwarz & Clore, 1983). According to Schwarz’s (2012) cognitive tuning account, affective states provide information regarding the appropriateness of the information processing strategy one is using when faced with a social cognitive task. Specifically, positive mood states are thought to signal a benign and safe environment. Consequently, a processing style that relies heavily on one’s prior knowledge heuristically, construes information on a more abstract and global level, and encourages more exploratory and innovative behaviour is considered adaptive. Negative moods, in contrast, signal a potentially problematic environment. In such cases, it is more appropriate to process the environment systematically and cautiously, with more attention paid to concrete, specific incoming information. Mood then, acts as a “go” or “stop” signal to current information processing strategy by cueing information about the nature of the task environment. This is sometimes referred to as the “affective processing principle” (Clore et al., 2018). Given the relevancy of this principle across multiple domains including social judgment, decision making, memory, perception, and creativity, synthesising such research is of great importance. However, meta-analytic evidence of the influence of mood on information processing style remains few and far between. This can likely be attributed to the wide variation in which information processing style has been operationalised and studied over the years which prevents capturing the full scope of mood-processing effects in a single meta-analysis. Instead, we must rely on a piecemeal approach, extrapolating from research examining outcomes related to only one of many dimensions of information processing. For example, researchers interested in how mood influences processing in terms of cognitive flexibility and innovation can infer such effects by examining creativity tasks. Along this dimension of processing, we find positive moods appear to enhance creativity relative to neutral moods (small to moderate effect sizes; Baas et al., 2008; Davis, 2009), and relative to negative moods, though to a lesser extent (small effect size; Davis, 2009). Alternatively, those interested in whether negative moods facilitate more analytical thinking may turn to literature involving persuasive message processing. Here we find people in negative moods appear to engage in more systematic processing relative to those in positive moods. Specifically, people in negative moods distinguish between strong persuasive arguments and weak ones to a greater extent than those in positive moods (Hullett, 2005). In contrast, if looking at the amount of information processed, anger (a negatively-valenced emotion) does not appear to engender more or less information processing than happiness (McKasy, 2020). This result seemingly contradicts the idea that negative affective states promote more effortful processing. Clearly, support for the affective processing principle depends on what dimension of processing style we are examining. Interestingly, one of the most discussed and prevalent aspects of processing style has yet to be examined in a meta-analytic review. Namely, whether positive mood privileges processing that is reliant on activated general knowledge structures over specific incoming information (i.e., top-down vs bottom-up processing; Bless & Fiedler, 2006; Bless & Burger, 2017). Research on this topic has wide reaching implications. For example, studies suggest positive moods relative to negative moods promote a greater reliance on activated stereotypes when making judgments of other people (Bless, Schwarz, & Wieland, 1996), rely more on heuristics when evaluating information (Bohner et al., 1992; Forgas, 2011), and produce more schema-based false memories (Bless, Schwarz, Clore, et al., 1996). Yet, without reviewing and quantitatively summarising this research, we cannot be sure of the magnitude of these effects nor its reliability. To address this, this protocol describes a rationale and proposed methodology for conducting a systematic review and meta-analysis of all eligible literature examining mood and top-down processing style. I choose to limit our review on methodologies which explicitly prime or manipulate activated general knowledge structures (e.g., stereotypes, behavioural-scripts, heuristics; for more information, see Outcomes and Prioritisations) while participants are engaged in a social cognitive task. This is because it provides the most direct evidence of the influence of these knowledge structures on outcomes, rather than assuming its influence based on a theoretical association between process and outcome. For instance, while many assume heuristic processing generally impedes performance on reasoning tasks, without explicit reference to a given heuristic we cannot attribute poor performance to heuristic processing any more than we can attribute it to less effortful processing, or some other mechanism. Objectives By conducting this review and meta-analysis, I hope to address the following research questions: 1. In adults, does the experience of a positive mood increase reliance on activated knowledge structures during processing of social cognitive tasks relative to negative mood? 2. Are these effects moderated by mood induction procedure, strength of induced mood, manipulation of boundary conditions, or outcome domain? 3. Is there evidence of selective reporting in this research field?

Rationale Successful navigation of the social world is largely dependent on our ability to form accurate impressions of others, evaluate relevant information, and make appropriate decisions based on valid informational cues. Naturally, whenever people are involved emotions are too; and this social cognitive process is no exception. In fact, the link between feeling and thought has been of great interest to social cognition researchers for decades. In particular, the regulation of cognitive processing strategy by affective states has been a core postulate of several popular theories concerning affect and social cognition for the last fifty years (Bless & Burger, 2017; Bless & Fiedler, 2006; Clore & Huntsinger, 2007; Forgas, 1995; Schwarz, 1990; Schwarz & Clore, 1983). According to Schwarz’s (2012) cognitive tuning account, affective states provide information regarding the appropriateness of the information processing strategy one is using when faced with a social cognitive task. Specifically, positive mood states are thought to signal a benign and safe environment. Consequently, a processing style that relies heavily on one’s prior knowledge heuristically, construes information on a more abstract and global level, and encourages more exploratory and innovative behaviour is considered adaptive. Negative moods, in contrast, signal a potentially problematic environment. In such cases, it is more appropriate to process the environment systematically and cautiously, with more attention paid to concrete, specific incoming information. Mood then, acts as a “go” or “stop” signal to current information processing strategy by cueing information about the nature of the task environment. This is sometimes referred to as the “affective processing principle” (Clore et al., 2018). Given the relevancy of this principle across multiple domains including social judgment, decision making, memory, perception, and creativity, synthesising such research is of great importance. However, meta-analytic evidence of the influence of mood on information processing style remains few and far between. This can likely be attributed to the wide variation in which information processing style has been operationalised and studied over the years which prevents capturing the full scope of mood-processing effects in a single meta-analysis. Instead, we must rely on a piecemeal approach, extrapolating from research examining outcomes related to only one of many dimensions of information processing. For example, researchers interested in how mood influences processing in terms of cognitive flexibility and innovation can infer such effects by examining creativity tasks. Along this dimension of processing, we find positive moods appear to enhance creativity relative to neutral moods (small to moderate effect sizes; Baas et al., 2008; Davis, 2009), and relative to negative moods, though to a lesser extent (small effect size; Davis, 2009). Alternatively, those interested in whether negative moods facilitate more analytical thinking may turn to literature involving persuasive message processing. Here we find people in negative moods appear to engage in more systematic processing relative to those in positive moods. Specifically, people in negative moods distinguish between strong persuasive arguments and weak ones to a greater extent than those in positive moods (Hullett, 2005). In contrast, if looking at the amount of information processed, anger (a negatively-valenced emotion) does not appear to engender more or less information processing than happiness (McKasy, 2020). This result seemingly contradicts the idea that negative affective states promote more effortful processing. Clearly, support for the affective processing principle depends on what dimension of processing style we are examining. Interestingly, one of the most discussed and prevalent aspects of processing style has yet to be examined in a meta-analytic review. Namely, whether positive mood privileges processing that is reliant on activated general knowledge structures over specific incoming information (i.e., top-down vs bottom-up processing; Bless & Fiedler, 2006; Bless & Burger, 2017). Research on this topic has wide reaching implications. For example, studies suggest positive moods relative to negative moods promote a greater reliance on activated stereotypes when making judgments of other people (Bless, Schwarz, & Wieland, 1996), rely more on heuristics when evaluating information (Bohner et al., 1992; Forgas, 2011), and produce more schema-based false memories (Bless, Schwarz, Clore, et al., 1996). Yet, without reviewing and quantitatively summarising this research, we cannot be sure of the magnitude of these effects nor its reliability. To address this, this protocol describes a rationale and proposed methodology for conducting a systematic review and meta-analysis of all eligible literature examining mood and top-down processing style. I choose to limit our review on methodologies which explicitly prime or manipulate activated general knowledge structures (e.g., stereotypes, behavioural-scripts, heuristics; for more information, see Outcomes and Prioritisations) while participants are engaged in a social cognitive task. This is because it provides the most direct evidence of the influence of these knowledge structures on outcomes, rather than assuming its influence based on a theoretical association between process and outcome. For instance, while many assume heuristic processing generally impedes performance on reasoning tasks, without explicit reference to a given heuristic we cannot attribute poor performance to heuristic processing any more than we can attribute it to less effortful processing, or some other mechanism. Objectives By conducting this review and meta-analysis, I hope to address the following research questions: 1. In adults, does the experience of a positive mood increase reliance on activated knowledge structures during processing of social cognitive tasks relative to negative mood? 2. Are these effects moderated by mood induction procedure, strength of induced mood, manipulation of boundary conditions, or outcome domain? 3. Is there evidence of selective reporting in this research field?

Rationale Successful navigation of the social world is largely dependent on our ability to form accurate impressions of others, evaluate relevant information, and make appropriate decisions based on valid informational cues. Naturally, whenever people are involved emotions are too; and this social cognitive process is no exception. In fact, the link between feeling and thought has been of great interest to social cognition researchers for decades. In particular, the regulation of cognitive processing strategy by affective states has been a core postulate of several popular theories concerning affect and social cognition for the last fifty years (Bless & Burger, 2017; Bless & Fiedler, 2006; Clore & Huntsinger, 2007; Forgas, 1995; Schwarz, 1990; Schwarz & Clore, 1983). According to Schwarz’s (2012) cognitive tuning account, affective states provide information regarding the appropriateness of the information processing strategy one is using when faced with a social cognitive task. Specifically, positive mood states are thought to signal a benign and safe environment. Consequently, a processing style that relies heavily on one’s prior knowledge heuristically, construes information on a more abstract and global level, and encourages more exploratory and innovative behaviour is considered adaptive. Negative moods, in contrast, signal a potentially problematic environment. In such cases, it is more appropriate to process the environment systematically and cautiously, with more attention paid to concrete, specific incoming information. Mood then, acts as a “go” or “stop” signal to current information processing strategy by cueing information about the nature of the task environment. This is sometimes referred to as the “affective processing principle” (Clore et al., 2018). Given the relevancy of this principle across multiple domains including social judgment, decision making, memory, perception, and creativity, synthesising such research is of great importance. However, meta-analytic evidence of the influence of mood on information processing style remains few and far between. This can likely be attributed to the wide variation in which information processing style has been operationalised and studied over the years which prevents capturing the full scope of mood-processing effects in a single meta-analysis. Instead, we must rely on a piecemeal approach, extrapolating from research examining outcomes related to only one of many dimensions of information processing. For example, researchers interested in how mood influences processing in terms of cognitive flexibility and innovation can infer such effects by examining creativity tasks. Along this dimension of processing, we find positive moods appear to enhance creativity relative to neutral moods (small to moderate effect sizes; Baas et al., 2008; Davis, 2009), and relative to negative moods, though to a lesser extent (small effect size; Davis, 2009). Alternatively, those interested in whether negative moods facilitate more analytical thinking may turn to literature involving persuasive message processing. Here we find people in negative moods appear to engage in more systematic processing relative to those in positive moods. Specifically, people in negative moods distinguish between strong persuasive arguments and weak ones to a greater extent than those in positive moods (Hullett, 2005). In contrast, if looking at the amount of information processed, anger (a negatively-valenced emotion) does not appear to engender more or less information processing than happiness (McKasy, 2020). This result seemingly contradicts the idea that negative affective states promote more effortful processing. Clearly, support for the affective processing principle depends on what dimension of processing style we are examining. Interestingly, one of the most discussed and prevalent aspects of processing style has yet to be examined in a meta-analytic review. Namely, whether positive mood privileges processing that is reliant on activated general knowledge structures over specific incoming information (i.e., top-down vs bottom-up processing; Bless & Fiedler, 2006; Bless & Burger, 2017). Research on this topic has wide reaching implications. For example, studies suggest positive moods relative to negative moods promote a greater reliance on activated stereotypes when making judgments of other people (Bless, Schwarz, & Wieland, 1996), rely more on heuristics when evaluating information (Bohner et al., 1992; Forgas, 2011), and produce more schema-based false memories (Bless, Schwarz, Clore, et al., 1996). Yet, without reviewing and quantitatively summarising this research, we cannot be sure of the magnitude of these effects nor its reliability. To address this, this protocol describes a rationale and proposed methodology for conducting a systematic review and meta-analysis of all eligible literature examining mood and top-down processing style. I choose to limit our review on methodologies which explicitly prime or manipulate activated general knowledge structures (e.g., stereotypes, behavioural-scripts, heuristics; for more information, see Outcomes and Prioritisations) while participants are engaged in a social cognitive task. This is because it provides the most direct evidence of the influence of these knowledge structures on outcomes, rather than assuming its influence based on a theoretical association between process and outcome. For instance, while many assume heuristic processing generally impedes performance on reasoning tasks, without explicit reference to a given heuristic we cannot attribute poor performance to heuristic processing any more than we can attribute it to less effortful processing, or some other mechanism. Objectives By conducting this review and meta-analysis, I hope to address the following research questions: 1. In adults, does the experience of a positive mood increase reliance on activated knowledge structures during processing of social cognitive tasks relative to negative mood? 2. Are these effects moderated by mood induction procedure, strength of induced mood, manipulation of boundary conditions, or outcome domain? 3. Is there evidence of selective reporting in this research field?

Rationale Successful navigation of the social world is largely dependent on our ability to form accurate impressions of others, evaluate relevant information, and make appropriate decisions based on valid informational cues. Naturally, whenever people are involved emotions are too; and this social cognitive process is no exception. In fact, the link between feeling and thought has been of great interest to social cognition researchers for decades. In particular, the regulation of cognitive processing strategy by affective states has been a core postulate of several popular theories concerning affect and social cognition for the last fifty years (Bless & Burger, 2017; Bless & Fiedler, 2006; Clore & Huntsinger, 2007; Forgas, 1995; Schwarz, 1990; Schwarz & Clore, 1983). According to Schwarz’s (2012) cognitive tuning account, affective states provide information regarding the appropriateness of the information processing strategy one is using when faced with a social cognitive task. Specifically, positive mood states are thought to signal a benign and safe environment. Consequently, a processing style that relies heavily on one’s prior knowledge heuristically, construes information on a more abstract and global level, and encourages more exploratory and innovative behaviour is considered adaptive. Negative moods, in contrast, signal a potentially problematic environment. In such cases, it is more appropriate to process the environment systematically and cautiously, with more attention paid to concrete, specific incoming information. Mood then, acts as a “go” or “stop” signal to current information processing strategy by cueing information about the nature of the task environment. This is sometimes referred to as the “affective processing principle” (Clore et al., 2018). Given the relevancy of this principle across multiple domains including social judgment, decision making, memory, perception, and creativity, synthesising such research is of great importance. However, meta-analytic evidence of the influence of mood on information processing style remains few and far between. This can likely be attributed to the wide variation in which information processing style has been operationalised and studied over the years which prevents capturing the full scope of mood-processing effects in a single meta-analysis. Instead, we must rely on a piecemeal approach, extrapolating from research examining outcomes related to only one of many dimensions of information processing. For example, researchers interested in how mood influences processing in terms of cognitive flexibility and innovation can infer such effects by examining creativity tasks. Along this dimension of processing, we find positive moods appear to enhance creativity relative to neutral moods (small to moderate effect sizes; Baas et al., 2008; Davis, 2009), and relative to negative moods, though to a lesser extent (small effect size; Davis, 2009). Alternatively, those interested in whether negative moods facilitate more analytical thinking may turn to literature involving persuasive message processing. Here we find people in negative moods appear to engage in more systematic processing relative to those in positive moods. Specifically, people in negative moods distinguish between strong persuasive arguments and weak ones to a greater extent than those in positive moods (Hullett, 2005). In contrast, if looking at the amount of information processed, anger (a negatively-valenced emotion) does not appear to engender more or less information processing than happiness (McKasy, 2020). This result seemingly contradicts the idea that negative affective states promote more effortful processing. Clearly, support for the affective processing principle depends on what dimension of processing style we are examining. Interestingly, one of the most discussed and prevalent aspects of processing style has yet to be examined in a meta-analytic review. Namely, whether positive mood privileges processing that is reliant on activated general knowledge structures over specific incoming information (i.e., top-down vs bottom-up processing; Bless & Fiedler, 2006; Bless & Burger, 2017). Research on this topic has wide reaching implications. For example, studies suggest positive moods relative to negative moods promote a greater reliance on activated stereotypes when making judgments of other people (Bless, Schwarz, & Wieland, 1996), rely more on heuristics when evaluating information (Bohner et al., 1992; Forgas, 2011), and produce more schema-based false memories (Bless, Schwarz, Clore, et al., 1996). Yet, without reviewing and quantitatively summarising this research, we cannot be sure of the magnitude of these effects nor its reliability. To address this, this protocol describes a rationale and proposed methodology for conducting a systematic review and meta-analysis of all eligible literature examining mood and top-down processing style. I choose to limit our review on methodologies which explicitly prime or manipulate activated general knowledge structures (e.g., stereotypes, behavioural-scripts, heuristics; for more information, see Outcomes and Prioritisations) while participants are engaged in a social cognitive task. This is because it provides the most direct evidence of the influence of these knowledge structures on outcomes, rather than assuming its influence based on a theoretical association between process and outcome. For instance, while many assume heuristic processing generally impedes performance on reasoning tasks, without explicit reference to a given heuristic we cannot attribute poor performance to heuristic processing any more than we can attribute it to less effortful processing, or some other mechanism. Objectives By conducting this review and meta-analysis, I hope to address the following research questions: 1. In adults, does the experience of a positive mood increase reliance on activated knowledge structures during processing of social cognitive tasks relative to negative mood? 2. Are these effects moderated by mood induction procedure, strength of induced mood, manipulation of boundary conditions, or outcome domain? 3. Is there evidence of selective reporting in this research field?

The use of networks in public education is one of many knowledge mobilization (KMb) strategies utilized to promote evidence-based research into practice. However, challenges exist in the ability to mobilize knowledge through networks. The purpose of this paper is to explore how networks work. Data were collected from virtual discussions for an interim report for a province-wide government initiative. A secondary analysis of the data was performed. The findings present network structures and processes that partners were engaged in when building a network within education. The implications of this study show that building a network for successful outcomes is complex and metaphorically similar to finding the "sweet spot." It is challenging, but networks that used strategies to align structures and processes proved to achieve more success in mobilizing research to practice.

The development and role of subject matter knowledge within teachers' professional development is currently the source of much research; however, the parallel development and role of pedagogical knowledge has yet to be systematically analyzed. In investigating this seldomly tapped area of concern, researchers involved 26 preservice science teachers (12-United States and 14-Taiwan) in a study that provided insights regarding the following questions: (1) What is the nature/appearance of preservice science teachers' subject matter and pedagogy knowledge structure?; (2) What is the source(s) of these knowledge structures?; (3) Are these knowledge structures stable during the student teaching experience?; and (4) What is the relationship between these knowledge structures and how do they relate to the act of teaching? Although significant differences exist in the teacher preparation programs experienced by the aforementioned teachers, several interesting comparisons were made: (1) both groups were hesitant about completing a questionnaire that required information regarding their subject matter understanding; (2) it was more difficult for the Taiwanese teachers to conceptualize pedagogy apart from their subject matter; and (3) these preservice science teachers were not presented with an overt or covert structure of subject matter as part of their content preparation. (ZWH)

Student teachers (n=40) worked in pairs on a structural design problem-solving activity. Their preconceptions about such concepts as strength and force were challenged and reconstructed in the process. Stronger links between scientific thinking and teacher knowledge were urged. (Contains 45 references.) (SK)

Student teachers (n=40) worked in pairs on a structural design problem-solving activity. Their preconceptions about such concepts as strength and force were challenged and reconstructed in the process. Stronger links between scientific thinking and teacher knowledge were urged. (Contains 45 references.) (SK)

The research described in this report is part of a three-stage project in the domain of arithmetic story problems. The three stages are: (1) definition and explication of schema knowledge, (2) development and evaluation of an instructional system designed to teach schema knowledge, and (3) computer simulation of the acquisition and use of schema knowledge structures. This document focuses on the first stage only and explicates three aspects of our research. First, the domain itself is analyzed with respect to the conceptual relations that may appear in story problems. Emphasis is upon the underlying semantic structure that gives meaning to each problem. Second, each semantic structure is framed as a hypothetical memory object (i.e., a schema), and the relationship to accepted theories of memory is explored. Third, a computer model is presented that details the linkage of schema knowledge to two basic components of long-term memory: semantic networks of declarative memory and production systems of procedural memory. Keywords: Problem solving; Knowledge representation. (Author)

The object of our research is the codification of programming knowledge for the synthesis of concurrent programs. This is important because concurrency is a way of securing better performance on amenable problems than is available on non-concurrent computers. We divide this knowledge into two sections: knowledge for the synthesis of arrays of processors that could be connected in a geometrically regular manner (crystalline concurrency), and knowledge for the synthesis of tree structure (tree concurrency). We divide synthesis of crystalline concurrency, in turn into several subsections: synthesis of declarations of multiple processors and the wires implied by the dependencies among the values they contain reduction of this wire network to a smaller wire network creation of subnetworks to replace an overly-broad fanout network, virtualization which is the creation of additional array elements and processors to reflect the internal enumerations that comprise the computation of a datum and aggregation which is the merging of several processors into one. We use a transformational approach. The transformational system has rules each of which contains two predicates: an antecendent and a consequent. If the antecedent of a rule is true of a given object, the rule applies and the object is modified to make the consequent true. (Author)

This document reports on an educational research study directed towards identifying components necessary for the design of instructional programs to teach problem solving to students in grades 2-8. Thirty eighth grade students utilizing a geology unit from the Individualized Science (IS) program participated in the pilot study reported here. Results indicate knowledge, the interaction of knowledge and process, and other factors such as the ability to recognize and define terms and the ability to identify relationships among terms contributed to final scores obtained. (SL)

This collection of abstracts is part of a continuing series providing information on recent doctoral dissertations. The 20 titles deal with the following topics: the role of crib talk in language acquisition; syntactic parsing strategies; a case study of the first use of words; how two modes of literature presentation affect oral language development; children's cognition and acquisition of selected syntactic structures; language use in constructing/testing social scientific theories; the functions of language in discussions; visual literacy as a factor in language development; form and function as a basis for referential development in children; discriminating synthetic speech sounds; assessing secondary school students' knowledge of prefixes; language within power relationships; a flexible child-talk code; developing spatial and syntactic transformations; the acquisition of five syntactic structures by elementary school children; the developmental relationship between comprehension and production of grammatical morphemes in preschool children; how preschool children sequence narrative events; classifying preschool children's uses of meaningful language on selected conceptual tasks; maternal self-repetition and child feedback; and the mastery of specific conjunctions by elementary school children. (RL)

English-Language Learners (ELLs, English-Learners, ELs) are a particularly challenging sector of the student population in United States schools. They constitute an increasingly larger presence in most school districts, growing 51 percent in ten years to 5.1 million in 2006. Despite becoming more common, schools have yet to figure out ways to meet the needs of these students, who continue to lag behind in most academic achievement measures. Although "English-Language-Learner" is an important demographic category, the designation is problematic as a reference point for teaching practice among teachers and teacher educators. In this article the author argues for a shift in the definition of teaching practice for teachers and teacher educators away from "English learners" toward "language use for academic purposes" as a perspective from which to examine their practice. This self-study is an instance of a teacher educator interested in experiential, hands-on pedagogy to foster critical language awareness among preservice teachers. The author begins by proposing a re-conceptualization of teaching and teacher preparation in terms of learning outcomes, not student types. He argues that "English-Language-Learners" is (a) both too broad and not inclusive enough, (b) likely to elicit views of students as deficient, (c) not conducive to "one-size-fits-all" approaches (Reyes, 1992), and (d) lacking a widely-accepted theory or model to explain the relationship between teaching and learning. He then analyzes his students' developing awareness of academic language after completing two PLTs, one in English, the other in Spanish. After discussing findings, the author closes with conclusions and recommendations regarding academic language use as another form of pedagogical content knowledge. (Contains 1 table and 3 notes.)

The Ontario Consortium of Undergraduate Biology Educators (oCUBE) brings together over 50 biology educators from 18 Ontario universities with the common goal to improve the biology undergraduate experience for both students and educators. This goal is achieved through an innovative mix of highly interactive face-to-face meetings, online conferencing platforms (wiki and video conferencing), monthly online newsletters, and other activities. The beauty of the oCUBE model is that it meshes with the active learning methods that its members use in their own teaching. It also creates a community of practice with intra- and inter-institutional collaborations that assist in resolving educational issues of both common and immediate importance to oCUBE members. oCUBE members report that oCUBE activities and resources are very effective in helping them learn new teaching strategies and in developing professionally.

Analysis of Pioneering Computable Biomedical Knowledge Repositories and their Emerging Governance Structures 作者： Philip, Sahr Amara 1 Marisa, Conte 2 Allen, Flynn 1 Jodyn, Platt 1 Marie, Grace Trinidad 3 作者单位： 1. Department of Learning Health Sciences, University of Michigan Medical School, Michigan 48109-0624, USA 2. Taubman Health Sciences Library University of Michigan, Michigan 48109-1382, USA 3. School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Michigan 48109-2029, USA 通讯作者： Philip, Sahr Amara Email: amaphili 提交时间： 2022-11-28 @umich.edu> 摘要: A growing interest in producing and sharing computable biomedical knowledge artifacts (CBKs) is increasing the demand for repositories that validate, catalog, and provide shared access to CBKs. However, there is a lack of evidence on how best to manage and sustain CBK repositories. In this paper, we present the results of interviews with several pioneering CBK repository owners. These interviews were informed by the Trusted Repositories Audit and Certification (TRAC) framework. Insights gained from these interviews suggest that the organizations operating CBK repositories are somewhat new, that their initial approaches to repository governance are informal, and that achieving economic sustainability for their CBK repositories is a major challenge. To enable a learning health system to make better use of its data intelligence, future approaches to CBK repository management will require enhanced governance and closer adherence to best practice frameworks to meet the needs of myriad biomedical science and health communities. More effort is needed to find sustainable funding models for accessible CBK artifact collections. Computable Biomedical Knowledge Governance Repository Trust Sustainability 期刊： DATA INTELLIGENCE 分类： 计算机科学 >> 计算机科学的集成理论 引用： ChinaXiv:202211.00427 (或此版本 ChinaXiv:202211.00427V1 ) DOI: 10.1162/dint_a_00148 CSTR:32003.36.ChinaXiv.202211.00427.V1 推荐引用方式： Philip, Sahr Amara,Marisa, Conte,Allen, Flynn,Jodyn, Platt,Marie, Grace Trinidad.(2022).Analysis of Pioneering Computable Biomedical Knowledge Repositories and their Emerging Governance Structures.DATA INTELLIGENCE.doi: 10.1162/dint_a_00148 版本历史 [V1] 2022-11-28 21:43:16 ChinaXiv:202211.00427V1 下载全文

Analysis of Pioneering Computable Biomedical Knowledge Repositories and their Emerging Governance Structures 作者： Philip, Sahr Amara 1 Marisa, Conte 2 Allen, Flynn 1 Jodyn, Platt 1 Marie, Grace Trinidad 3 作者单位： 1. Department of Learning Health Sciences, University of Michigan Medical School, Michigan 48109-0624, USA 2. Taubman Health Sciences Library University of Michigan, Michigan 48109-1382, USA 3. School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Michigan 48109-2029, USA 通讯作者： Philip, Sahr Amara Email: amaphili 提交时间： 2022-11-28 @umich.edu> 摘要: A growing interest in producing and sharing computable biomedical knowledge artifacts (CBKs) is increasing the demand for repositories that validate, catalog, and provide shared access to CBKs. However, there is a lack of evidence on how best to manage and sustain CBK repositories. In this paper, we present the results of interviews with several pioneering CBK repository owners. These interviews were informed by the Trusted Repositories Audit and Certification (TRAC) framework. Insights gained from these interviews suggest that the organizations operating CBK repositories are somewhat new, that their initial approaches to repository governance are informal, and that achieving economic sustainability for their CBK repositories is a major challenge. To enable a learning health system to make better use of its data intelligence, future approaches to CBK repository management will require enhanced governance and closer adherence to best practice frameworks to meet the needs of myriad biomedical science and health communities. More effort is needed to find sustainable funding models for accessible CBK artifact collections. Computable Biomedical Knowledge Governance Repository Trust Sustainability 期刊： DATA INTELLIGENCE 分类： 计算机科学 >> 计算机科学的集成理论 引用： ChinaXiv:202211.00427 (或此版本 ChinaXiv:202211.00427V1 ) DOI: 10.1162/dint_a_00148 CSTR:32003.36.ChinaXiv.202211.00427.V1 推荐引用方式： Philip, Sahr Amara,Marisa, Conte,Allen, Flynn,Jodyn, Platt,Marie, Grace Trinidad.(2022).Analysis of Pioneering Computable Biomedical Knowledge Repositories and their Emerging Governance Structures.DATA INTELLIGENCE.doi: 10.1162/dint_a_00148 版本历史 [V1] 2022-11-28 21:43:16 ChinaXiv:202211.00427V1 下载全文

This collection of abstracts is part of a continuing series providing information on recent doctoral dissertations. The 20 titles deal with a variety of topics, including the following: semantic constructivity in children's comprehension; text-based inferences generated by children in reading written discourse; a review of reading comprehension research; the psycholinguistic processes of beginning readers; the relationship between discourse structures and critical reading; information processing and retrieval of adult college students; the effects of anaphoric references, typographically modified organizers, and oral prequestioning on reading comprehension; word analysis strategies for reading; the effect of question order on reading achievement; sentence characteristics that influence the comprehensibility of text; the effect of chunking on the recall of written discourse; types of information addition in the psycholinguistic process of reading; the relationship of knowledge of given information to reading comprehension; prose learning as a function of adjunct questions and individual differences; and the relationship of language cues used in silent reading to the semantic and syntactic cues revealed in oral reading miscues. (GW)

This report presents a summary of operator knowledge of Rocky Mountain Arsenal (RMA) structures, and is intended to provide information for use in their remediation through implementation of the Feasibility Study Detailed Analysis of Alternatives or as part of the Interim Response Actions. Operator knowledge (i.e., records and data pertaining to past operations in RMA facilities) will be used to assess the preliminary hazardous nature of each structure, and to determine sampling and demolition strategies for the structures. It has been obtained from historical information, existing sampling data, visual inspection of structures, and knowledge of the waste stream gained through pilot-scale or treatability studies

This study addresses the following research questions: RQ1: Do second language (L2) learners show alignment and long-term learning in text-based chat interactions for multiple target structures? RQ2: Why does alignment and long-term learning vary across structures? Subquestion 1: What is the effect of familiarity with the target structures? Subquestion 2: What is the effect of conscious decisions?

It is increasingly being recognized that understanding expert knowledge structures associated with critical decision processes may facilitate Naval personnel performance. Toward this end, system developers and training researchers attempt to identify critical components of expert operator assessment and knowledge. Differing domains of practice rely to varying degrees on perceptual and conceptual knowledge. Perceptual knowledge is relied upon for recognizing critical cues in the environment whereas conceptual knowledge is used to interpret the meaning and importance of these cues. We focus on conceptual knowledge given its importance in the submariner environment. Via analyses of submariner knowledge for concepts related to responsibilities for the Officer of the Deck (OOD) watchstander we examined how training may alter knowledge representation and priority of conceptual importance and how overlap in mental models may be due to amount of experience.

The cognitive structure of 13 concepts in pulmonary physiology was explored among 112 first-year medical students and among 32 faculty members in three different expertise groups in a knowledge representation study. Purposes were to assess the degree of agreement among faculty members, map students' concept structures, and compare the similarity of student concepts with those of instructors. It was hypothesized that, as a consequence of instruction, students' concept networks would approximate the structure of concept networks produced by faculty experts. The Pathfinder scaling algorithm was used to map and compare student and faculty concept structures. Pathfinder uses pairwise judgments of similarity between a set of concepts to produce a network or graph and to focus on the local relationships among concepts, in contrast to multidimensional scaling, which seems to capture more global information about the concept space. Data show that the ways in which medical experts conceptually organized the concepts were not necessarily consistent. Similarity ratings for the three expert groups (internists, anesthesiologists, and physiologists) were modest, and comparisons between groups were weaker than comparisons within groups. Data do support the hypothesis that students' Pathfinder networks would begin to approximate the structure of the concept networks produced by faculty as a consequence of instruction, although the choice of which faculty network is best remains uncertain. (Contains 1 table, 1 figure, and 19 references.) (SLD)

The present study was an exploratory study of the content-specific knowledge structures of three teacher educators (two in math and one in science). Pathfinder, a method for eliciting associative memory networks, was used to describe the knowledge structures of the teacher educators. Pathfinder was also used to determine changes in knowledge structures of students enrolled in a teaching methodology class taught by each educator. Finally, a measure of the correspondence between students' knowledge structures and those of the teacher educators was correlated with students' performances in the courses. For two teacher educators, students' knowledge structures corresponded more closely with that of the teacher educator after the course than before. For one teacher educator, students exhibited little change in knowledge structure correspondence. Also, students who corresponded most to teacher educators performed better in their respective courses. The findings point to the need for further study of the acquisition of knowledge in undergraduate students and the processes associated with the transmission of knowledge in math and science teacher-education programs. Contains 3 figures, and 19 references. (Author/SLD)

In a game of incomplete information, an infinite state space can create problems. When the space is uncountably large, the strategy spaces of the players may be unwieldly, resulting in a lack of measurable equilibria. When the knowledge of a player allows for an infinite number of possibilities, without conditions on the behavior of the other players, that player may be unable to evaluate and compare the payoff consequences of her actions. We argue that local finiteness is an important and desirable property, namely that at every point in the state space every player knows that only a finite number of points are possible. Local finiteness implies a kind of common knowledge of a countable number of points. Unfortunately its relationship to other forms of common knowledge is complex. In the context of the multi-agent propositional calculus, if the set of formulas held in common knowledge is generated by a finite set of formulas but a finite structure is not determined then there are uncountably many locally finite structures sharing this same set of formulas in common knowledge and likewise uncountably many with uncountable size. This differs radically from the infinite generation of formulas in common knowledge, and we show some examples of this. One corollary is that if there are infinitely many distinct points but a uniform bound on the number of points any player knows is possible then the set of formulas in common knowledge cannot be finitely generated.

In a game of incomplete information, an infinite state space can create problems. When the space is uncountably large, the strategy spaces of the players may be unwieldly, resulting in a lack of measurable equilibria. When the knowledge of a player allows for an infinite number of possibilities, without conditions on the behavior of the other players, that player may be unable to evaluate and compare the payoff consequences of her actions. We argue that local finiteness is an important and desirable property, namely that at every point in the state space every player knows that only a finite number of points are possible. Local finiteness implies a kind of common knowledge of a countable number of points. Unfortunately its relationship to other forms of common knowledge is complex. In the context of the multi-agent propositional calculus, if the set of formulas held in common knowledge is generated by a finite set of formulas but a finite structure is not determined then there are uncountably many locally finite structures sharing this same set of formulas in common knowledge and likewise uncountably many with uncountable size. This differs radically from the infinite generation of formulas in common knowledge, and we show some examples of this. One corollary is that if there are infinitely many distinct points but a uniform bound on the number of points any player knows is possible then the set of formulas in common knowledge cannot be finitely generated.

This report contains the workshop's program, a summary of each presentation, and a critical overall evaluation.

Multidimensional knowledge structures, described from a constructivist perspective and aligned with the "Mind as Rhizome" metaphor, provide support for constructivist learning strategies. This qualitative study was conducted to seek empirical support for a description of multidimensional knowledge structures, focusing on the idiosyncratic nature of knowledge that arose in the classroom and was based upon children's individual prior experience and knowledge. Participants (n=25) were students in a first and sixth grade parochial classroom in a small Midwestern city. Data were gathered through observation and student interviews. Cues and trajectories in the children's representations of knowledge were identified. Implications of the structures for generating and developing multiple perspectives and developing learner ownership are discussed. (Contains 35 references.) (MES)

Multidimensional knowledge structures, described from a constructivist perspective and aligned with the "Mind as Rhizome" metaphor, provide support for constructivist learning strategies. This qualitative study was conducted to seek empirical support for a description of multidimensional knowledge structures, focusing on the idiosyncratic nature of knowledge that arose in the classroom and was based upon children's individual prior experience and knowledge. Participants (n=25) were students in a first and sixth grade parochial classroom in a small Midwestern city. Data were gathered through observation and student interviews. Cues and trajectories in the children's representations of knowledge were identified. Implications of the structures for generating and developing multiple perspectives and developing learner ownership are discussed. (Contains 35 references.) (MES)

Multidimensional knowledge structures, described from a constructivist perspective and aligned with the "Mind as Rhizome" metaphor, provide support for constructivist learning strategies. This qualitative study was conducted to seek empirical support for a description of multidimensional knowledge structures, focusing on the idiosyncratic nature of knowledge that arose in the classroom and was based upon children's individual prior experience and knowledge. Participants (n=25) were students in a first and sixth grade parochial classroom in a small Midwestern city. Data were gathered through observation and student interviews. Cues and trajectories in the children's representations of knowledge were identified. Implications of the structures for generating and developing multiple perspectives and developing learner ownership are discussed. (Contains 35 references.) (MES)

Multidimensional knowledge structures, described from a constructivist perspective and aligned with the "Mind as Rhizome" metaphor, provide support for constructivist learning strategies. This qualitative study was conducted to seek empirical support for a description of multidimensional knowledge structures, focusing on the idiosyncratic nature of knowledge that arose in the classroom and was based upon children's individual prior experience and knowledge. Participants (n=25) were students in a first and sixth grade parochial classroom in a small Midwestern city. Data were gathered through observation and student interviews. Cues and trajectories in the children's representations of knowledge were identified. Implications of the structures for generating and developing multiple perspectives and developing learner ownership are discussed. (Contains 35 references.) (MES)

The use of human memory and knowledge structures to direct fault diagnosis performance was investigated. The performances of 20 pilots with instrument flight ratings were studied in a fault diagnosis task. The pilots were read a scenario which described flight conditions under which the symptoms which are indicative of a problem were detected. They were asked to think out loud as they requested and interpreted various pieces of information to diagnose the cause of the problem. Only 11 of the 20 pilots successfully diagnosed the problem. Pilot performance on this fault diagnosis task was modeled in the use of domain specific knowledge organized in a frame system. Eighteen frames, with a common structure, were necessary to account for the data from all twenty subjects.

This exploratory study examined the structure of declarative knowledge about pedagogy housed in the memory of an experienced teacher educator, and it sought to determine the teacher educator's influence on the development of declarative knowledge structures in undergraduate students enrolled in three sections of a physical education teaching methods course. The Pathfinder scaling algorithm, an associative networking technique, was used to map the pedagogical knowledge structures of the teacher educator and undergraduate students before and following participation in the course. Comparison of students' knowledge of key pedagogical concepts with the instructor's indicated that students' knowledge was more coherent and corresponded more closely to the instructor's following the courses; final measures of correspondence and coherence were significantly associated with course performance. Also, university grade point average (GPA) was highly related to course performance variables while American College Test (ACT) scores were not. A follow-up of a subset of students indicated that key pedagogical concepts were retained over a six-month period of time. However, performance on a semantic classification task of pedagogical concepts provided little evidence that students most highly correspondent with the instructor organized knowledge at a more semantic level than students who were less correspondent. (Contains 58 references.) (LL)