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To investigate the applicability of schema-theoretic notions to young children's comprehension of textually explicit and inferrable information, slightly above-average second grade readers with strong and weak schemata for knowledge about spiders read a passage about spiders and answered wh-questions tapping both explicitly stated information and knowledge that necessarily had to be inferred from the text. Main effects were found for strength of prior knowledge, and question type. Simple effects tests indicated a significant prior-knowledge effect on the inferrable knowledge but not on explicitly stated information. A follow-up study was conducted to verify the fact that the question-type effect was not due to the chance allocation of inherently easier questions to one of the two question types. The findings revealed a reliable decrease in question difficulty attributable to cuing propositional relations explicitly in the text. The data were interpreted as supporting and extending the arguments emerging from various "schema theories." (Author)

The aim of the study is to explore factors that influence grammar learning and generalization as an example of statistical learning in language acquisition and use (Gomez, 2002; Hall et al., 2018; Lany & Saffran 2010; 2011; Seidenberg & MacDonald, 2018). The current study is part of a larger project that examines the contribution of multiple cues - phonological, distributional, and semantic - to grammatical category learning in an artificial language paradigm (adapted from Mirkovic, Forest & Gaskell, 2011; Mirkovic & Gaskell, 2016). The current study aims to investigate the role of explicit and implicit awareness of grammatical regularities in the language input (e.g. Batterink et al., 2015; Smalle et al., 2018; Franco et al., 2011; Monaghan et al., 2019) in generalisation performance. In Hickey, Hayiou-Thomas, and Mirkovic (2019), we found that verbally reported explicit knowledge of the statistical regularities significantly predicted generalisation performance in adults. However, response bias is a weakness of this measure (Tunney & Shanks, 2004; Wierschoń, Asanowicz, Paulewicz & Cleermans, 2012). Thus research using methodologically more robust and online measures of explicit awareness is needed to explore the role of this factor. The current study aims to investigate the role of both implicit and explicit knowledge in statistical generalisation in adults, using a set of measures of both types of knowledge. The same artificial language paradigm will be used with an incorporated confidence rating measure (e.g. Batterink et al., 2015; Dienes, 2007; Monaghan et al., 2019; Norman & Price, 2016; Rebushat, 2013) for both the training task and generalisation tasks. The confidence rating judgements will provide an integrated measure of explicit and implicit knowledge use, as in previous research. A new indirect, online generalisation task will be included as a more sensitive measure of implicit knowledge use (Batterink et al., 2015). This will take the form of a phoneme detection task.

The aim of the study is to explore factors that influence grammar learning and generalization as an example of statistical learning in language acquisition and use (Gomez, 2002; Hall et al., 2018; Lany & Saffran 2010; 2011; Seidenberg & MacDonald, 2018). The current study is part of a larger project that examines the contribution of multiple cues - phonological, distributional, and semantic - to grammatical category learning in an artificial language paradigm (adapted from Mirkovic, Forest & Gaskell, 2011; Mirkovic & Gaskell, 2016). The current study aims to investigate the role of explicit and implicit awareness of grammatical regularities in the language input (e.g. Batterink et al., 2015; Smalle et al., 2018; Franco et al., 2011; Monaghan et al., 2019) in generalisation performance. In Hickey, Hayiou-Thomas, and Mirkovic (2019), we found that verbally reported explicit knowledge of the statistical regularities significantly predicted generalisation performance in adults. However, response bias is a weakness of this measure (Tunney & Shanks, 2004; Wierschoń, Asanowicz, Paulewicz & Cleermans, 2012). Thus research using methodologically more robust and online measures of explicit awareness is needed to explore the role of this factor. The current study aims to investigate the role of both implicit and explicit knowledge in statistical generalisation in adults, using a set of measures of both types of knowledge. The same artificial language paradigm will be used with an incorporated confidence rating measure (e.g. Batterink et al., 2015; Dienes, 2007; Monaghan et al., 2019; Norman & Price, 2016; Rebushat, 2013) for both the training task and generalisation tasks. The confidence rating judgements will provide an integrated measure of explicit and implicit knowledge use, as in previous research. A new indirect, online generalisation task will be included as a more sensitive measure of implicit knowledge use (Batterink et al., 2015). This will take the form of a phoneme detection task.

The study examines the effect of explicit form focus instruction and specifically metalinguistic information feedback on the development of both implicit and explicit knowledge of adult English as a Second Language (ESL) learners. Ninety-one subjects at the lower intermediate level were carefully selected through placement test at one of the selected education centre in Kuala Lumpur and randomly assigned into experimental and control groups by the researcher. A quantitative study was conducted over approximately four weeks in 16 sessions. Modal (can and have to), past tense with -ed, Present perfect (since and for), Comparatives, Unreal conditionals were chosen as the target structures. Target structures were taught based on the lesson plan of the study. Pretest and posttest were given before and after the intervention program. The tests consisted of two tests designed to measure implicit knowledge (i.e., EOIT & TGJT) and two other tests (i.e., UGJT & MKT) to measure explicit knowledge. Results of ANCOVA analysis show gains on both types of knowledge on the posttest. The theoretical implication of the results suggests explicit instruction adequately facilitates development of L2 implicit and explicit knowledge. Pedagogically, these results suggest that explicit instruction on some English language features may benefit L2 learners, especially in facilitating their implicit knowledge.

Lack of valid means of measuring explicit and implicit knowledge in acquisition of second language is a concern issue in investigations of explicit and implicit learning. This paper endeavors to validate the use of four tests (i.e., Untimed Judgment Grammatical Test, UJGT; Test of Metalinguistic Knowledge, TMK; Elicited Oral Imitation Test, EOIT; and Time pressured Judgment Grammatical Test, TJGT) from a set of instruments introduced by Ellis (2005) to measure explicit and implicit knowledge of ESL learners. The result of Principal Component Analysis shows the UJGT and TMK loaded on the first factor (i.e., explicit knowledge) and the EOIT and TJGT loaded on the second factor (i.e., implicit knowledge) when a two factor solution was imposed. The study also shows that second language students respond in a different way to ungrammatical and grammatical sentences in the UJGT. Hence, Pearson Product Moment Coefficient tests have been conducted amid the ungrammatical and grammatical sentences in the UJGT and other instruments. The outcome suggests that in the case of UJGT ungrammatical sentences would provide a superior measurement of explicit knowledge.

This paper reports results from two studies conducted to examine word learning among preschool children in group book reading while we developed a scalable method of teaching words during book reading. We sought to identify factors that fostered both depth and breadth of learning by varying the type of information children heard about words while holding exposures constant. We also asked whether prior word knowledge affects children's learning across our different instructional approaches. In Study 1 we evaluated pre-post gains from two types of explicit instruction ("Didactic" and "Conceptual"), an implicit instructional approach ("Review"), and repeated "Exposure." For all three instructed conditions growth in receptive knowledge (our measure of breadth) was statistically equivalent when compared to control (d?=?0.43) and exposure words (d?=?0.41). In Study 2, words were taught using an augmented explicit approach and through repeated exposure. Moderate and statistically significant growth in receptive knowledge was found when comparing instructed to control words (d?=?0.48) and large effects were found with an expressive task measure of depth of knowledge (d?=?1.19). There also was evidence of learning from exposure. Children's vocabulary knowledge moderated learning gains. In Study 1 children with limited knowledge of vocabulary (0.75 SD below the group mean) learned fewer words than others. In Study 2, pre-test vocabulary knowledge moderated gains on the expressive measure for directly taught words and gains on the receptive measure for words taught through exposure. Thus, when words were intentionally taught, all children except those with the weakest initial knowledge acquired the initial lexical representations captured by the receptive measure at a similar rate. Those with stronger vocabulary more quickly acquired initial representations from exposure alone and deeper knowledge when they received intentional instruction. We conclude that teachers can build depth and breadth of vocabulary knowledge by combining intentional instruction of target words with repeated use of varied words by reading books multiple times and instructional comments that include use of novel words.

The issue of error correction remains controversial in recent years due to the different positions of interface toward implicit and explicit knowledge of ESL learners. This study looks at the impacts of implicit corrective feedback in the form of recast on implicit and explicit knowledge of adult ESL learners. In an experimental study, lower-intermediate learners first were taught the grammatical features; then they completed communicative tasks during which the experimental group received recast and the control group received no feedback when an error occurred. Acquisition was measured by means of tests designed to measure implicit and explicit knowledge. Results of ANCOVA analysis revealed higher score for the experimental group; and result of t-test revealed that recast has significant effect on implicit knowledge. In line with the weak interface position toward implicit and explicit knowledge, the findings extend empirical support for Schmidt's noticing hypothesis and function of recast in language learning.

The issue of error correction remains controversial in recent years due to the different positions of interface toward implicit and explicit knowledge of ESL learners. This study looks at the impacts of implicit corrective feedback in the form of recast on implicit and explicit knowledge of adult ESL learners. In an experimental study, lower-intermediate learners first were taught the grammatical features; then they completed communicative tasks during which the experimental group received recast and the control group received no feedback when an error occurred. Acquisition was measured by means of tests designed to measure implicit and explicit knowledge. Results of ANCOVA analysis revealed higher score for the experimental group; and result of t-test revealed that recast has significant effect on implicit knowledge. In line with the weak interface position toward implicit and explicit knowledge, the findings extend empirical support for Schmidt's noticing hypothesis and function of recast in language learning.

Implicit and explicit knowledge of the second language (L2) are two central constructs in the field of second language acquisition (SLA). In recent years, there has been a renewed interest in obtaining valid and reliable measures of L2 learners' implicit and explicit knowledge (e.g., Bowles, 2011; R. Ellis, 2005). The purpose of the present study was to examine the nature of the knowledge representations developed by two groups of learners of Spanish as a L2 at different levels of proficiency. The results show that the two groups differed with respect to their implicit and explicit knowledge of Spanish and also regarding the relationship between measures of those representations and the measures of L2 achievement used with each group. (Contains 11 tables, 2 figures, and 9 footnotes.)

Implicit and explicit knowledge of the second language (L2) are two central constructs in the field of second language acquisition (SLA). In recent years, there has been a renewed interest in obtaining valid and reliable measures of L2 learners' implicit and explicit knowledge (e.g., Bowles, 2011; R. Ellis, 2005). The purpose of the present study was to examine the nature of the knowledge representations developed by two groups of learners of Spanish as a L2 at different levels of proficiency. The results show that the two groups differed with respect to their implicit and explicit knowledge of Spanish and also regarding the relationship between measures of those representations and the measures of L2 achievement used with each group. (Contains 11 tables, 2 figures, and 9 footnotes.)

This article reports on an 8-week study that investigated the differential effects of two written corrective feedback (CF) options on 92 low-intermediate EFL students' explicit and implicit knowledge of English articles and the extent to which language analytic ability might influence the effect of written CF. The study used a pretest-treatment-posttest-delayed posttest design with three groups: a direct-only correction (DOC) group, a direct metalinguistic correction (DMC) group, and a control group. The acquisition of explicit knowledge was measured by an error correction test, and implicit knowledge was measured by a picture-cued writing test. It was found that both the DOC and the DMC benefited explicit and implicit knowledge, but no significant differences were reported in their effects on each type of knowledge. This study also showed that language analytic ability mediated the effectiveness of the DOC rather than that of the DMC. These findings are discussed from the perspective of cognitive psychology and implications and suggestions for further research are put forward.

Research into second language (L2) pragmatics has addressed a number of learner variables likely to implicate in speech act knowledge. Subscribing to the same line of research, the present study addressed the development and validation of a pragmatic learning strategy inventory (PRALSI), and the relationship between English as a foreign language (EFL) learners' pragmatic learning strategy (PLS) use and their speech act knowledge. A total of 245 Iranian English-major undergraduates, ranging in age from 19 to 31, participated in PRALSI's validation study. Of these, 117 further participated in the second phase of the study to unearth the relationship between PLS use and speech act knowledge, measured through a 24-item written discourse completion test (WDCT). Principal component analysis confirmed the 3-factor structure of PRALSI, comprising implicit, inductive explicit, and deductive explicit strategies. The inventory contains 41 strategies for the learning of three main aspects of pragmatic competence: speech acts, implicature, and conversational routines. Two one-way ANOVAs also showed strategy use, particularly the use of explicit strategies, to be positively correlated with speech act knowledge. The findings reveal the implications of the implicit/explicit learning dichotomy for pragmatic development and strategy use, and the potentially greater advantage explicit strategies offer for pragmatic knowledge.

Stemming from issue of migration for education, the study explored the language learning experience of Korean university students who come to the Philippines for education. Specifically, it documented the changes in the students' implicit and explicit knowledge that occurred in the preactional until the actional phase of their learning journey in a study abroad context. Using a free written task and a grammaticality judgment test, the study found that majority of the learners was able to access their implicit knowledge for free production tasks and their explicit knowledge for grammaticality judgment tests. The said findings confirm the effectiveness of Ellis' (2005) instruments in measuring implicit and explicit knowledge and the existence of the said types of knowledge. It was also found that statistically, the differences were significant but not correlated.

Stemming from issue of migration for education, the study explored the language learning experience of Korean university students who come to the Philippines for education. Specifically, it documented the changes in the students' implicit and explicit knowledge that occurred in the preactional until the actional phase of their learning journey in a study abroad context. Using a free written task and a grammaticality judgment test, the study found that majority of the learners was able to access their implicit knowledge for free production tasks and their explicit knowledge for grammaticality judgment tests. The said findings confirm the effectiveness of Ellis' (2005) instruments in measuring implicit and explicit knowledge and the existence of the said types of knowledge. It was also found that statistically, the differences were significant but not correlated.