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The Hearsay II speech understanding system being developed at Carnegie-Mellon University has an independent knowledge source module for each type of speech knowledge. Modules communicate by reading, writing, and modifying hypotheses about various constituents of the spoken utterance in a global data structure. The syntax and semantics module uses rules (productions) of four types: (1) recognition rules for generating a phrase hypothesis when its needed constituents have already been hypothesized; (2) prediction rules for inferring the likely presence of a word or phrase from previously recognized portions of the utterance; (3) respelling rules for hypothesizing the constituents of a predicted phrase; and (4) postdiction rules for supporting an existing hypothesis on the basis of additional confirming evidence. The rules are automatically generated from a declarative (i.e., non-procedural) description of the grammar and semantics, and are embedded in a parallel recognition network for efficient retrieval of applicable rules. The current grammar uses a 450- word vocabulary and accepts simple English queries for an information retrieval system. (Author)

Partial contents--Grammar: Intermediate Syntactic Representation; Syntax/Semantics Interaction; Semantics: Temporal Analysis; Editor for Semantics: Rule, Norminalizations, PUNDIT Applications; Environment: Testing Procedure; Port to the TI Explorer; Facilities; Meeting Attended.

This paper describes several experiments combining natural language and acoustic constraints to improve overall performance of the MIT VOYAGER spoken language system. This system couples the SUMMIT speech recognition system with the TINA language understanding system to answer spoken queries about navigational assistance in the Cambridge, MA, area. The overall goal of our research is to combine acoustic, syntactic and semantic knowledge sources. Our first experiment showed improvement by combining acoustic score and parse probability normalized for number of terminals. Results were further improved by the use of an explicit rejection criterion based on normalized parse probabilities. The use of the combined parse/acoustic score, together with the rejection criterion, gave an improvement in overall score of more than 33% on both training and test data, where score is defined as percent correct minus percent incorrect. Experiments on a fully integrated system which uses the parser to predict possible next words to the recognizer are now underway.

This document and overview of the SDC/NYU natural language system. Contents: grammar; noun phrase resolution; clause semantics', facilities.

Contents: Grammar; Syntax/Semantics Interaction; Semantics; Work on Multiple Domains; Environment; Sun Interface; Port to the Unisys Explorer.

Contents: Parsers; Grammars; and Prosodics.

Contents: Analyzing Explicitly-Structured Discourse in a Limited Domain: Trouble and Failure Reports; Reference Resolution in Pundit; Reducing Search by Partitioning the Word Network; Adding Forward Chaining and Truth Maintenance to Prolog; A Meta-Rule Treatment of English WH-Constructions; Natural Language Interfaces for Large Scale Information Processing; Restriction Grammar: A Logic Grammar; Porting Pundit to the Resource Management Domain; Or Parallel Speed-Up in Natural Language Processing: A Case Study; The Pundit Natural-Language Processing System; Or-Parallelism in Natural Language Parsing; Improved Portability and Parsing Through Interactive Acquisition of Semantic Information; Sentence Fragments Regular Structures; Getting at Discourse Referents; A Computational Model of the Semantics of Tense and Aspect; Situations and Intervals.

Message understanding systems are key to handling the steadily increasing volume of information required for intelligence, data fusion, logistics and maintenance operations. The capture and understanding of information in narrative text and messages is the focus of this contract. The goal is to convert this information into a representation of its meaning, which can be used to update a database with new information derived from the incoming messages, to summarize key information, or to issue appropriate commands to a back-end, e.g. to query a database or an expert system. The deliverable under this contract is the PUNDIT(Prolog Understanding of Integrated Text) natural language understanding system. The PUNDIT natural language system is the most ambitious natural language understanding system built to date. Its goal in the integration of multiple linguistically-based knowledge (a domain model), to understand messages in a restricted domain. PUNDIT has been designed with portability as a major goal. To facilitate porting the system to new domains, PUNDIT maintains a careful separation of domain-independent information from domain-specific information. The system consists of a core domain-independent portion (20K lines of Prolog code) which remains constant from application to application.

The purpose of this review article is to survey some of the current research in linguistic syntax and the reading process. It also presents a summary of recent developments in applied linguistics. Reading comprehension is viewed as an interactive communication process where the reader uses his knowledge and cognitive-linguistic processes, especially his knowledge of syntax, to construct meaning from the printed page. Linguistic research on reading is reviewed, illustrating the parallel development of studies in syntactic-semantic theory and research on the reading process. The information is grouped under the following headings: (1) Modern Trends in Reading Education Theory; (2) Evolution of Syntactic and Semantic Theory; and (3) On Aspects of the Reading Process and Applied Linguistics. A bibliography is given for both general linguistics and reading education research until early 1975. (Author/AM)

A model for helping classroom teachers understand and evaluate the growth of children in oral and written compositions is presented. The recommended procedure is centered around T-unit analysis. The following sequence is one possible way the T-unit analysis procedure might be used by an elementary school teacher: (1) Divide all the sentences of a pupil's composition into T-units; (2) Divide the total number of words in the composition by the total number of T-units, which will reveal the average length of the pupil's T units; (3) Analyze each sentence in the composition in terms of the number of T-units, number of words per T-unit, ways in which subordination and coordination are indicated, means for the development of characterization, nominals, adverbials and any other measures which affect T-unit length; (4) Prepare a summary outline based on the analysis of sentences including T-unit measures, features of the pupil's syntax, methods utilized for developing characterizations, plot structure analysis, and story interpretation; and (5) Write an evaluation based on the data obtained in steps 1 to 4. This method is illustrated with dictated oral compositions of two grade 1 students. The chief benefit of this procedure is the insights it gives the teacher as to the syntactic performance of his pupils. (Author/DB)

The conjunction mechanisms has been extended to allow semantic as well as syntactic processing of conjoined structures. The meta-conjunction component, which automatically generates conjunction rules for a grammar, has been enhanced so that it also generates rules describing the appropriate input to semantics, the intermediate syntactic representation or ISR, for each conjoined structure that is parsed. The modules which interpret and simplify the ISR have been extended so that the ISR for elements which are syntactically null under conjunction, but which have non-null semantics, can be computed. The semantics has been given a recursive structure so it can call itself to analyze the separate conjuncts of a conjoined structure.

Contents: Grammar; Semantics.

Partial contents: Focusing and reference resolution in PUNDIT text processing system; Recovering implicit information; Designing lexical entries for a limited domain; Current status of the grammatical coverage of the CASREPS. Keywords: Grammars parsing, Natural language; Artificial intelligence; PUNDIT (Prolog Understanding Integrated Text).

A merged lexicon for all domains has been created. The merged lexicon contains about 2400 distinct root words. A tool for extracting lexical items from a dictionary, given a word list, was used to obtain items from the merged lexicon for the resource management domain. Approximately 47% of the vocabulary (or 448 words) in this domain is new. However a large number of these words are proper names of ships and locations, which are relatively trivial to enter. There are about 225 other words, including about 50 verbs. Because there are so few verbs, we expect adding the lexical entries to take only a few days. Keywords: Syntax, Semantics, Natural language, Information retrieval.

A workshop on evaluation on natural language processing systems was held at the Wayne Hotel in Wayne, Philadelphia. The workshop discussed evaluation methods used in other disciplines and examples of attempts to evaluate natural language processing systems. The participants then broke up into working groups to discuss how to apply those methods to particular areas in natural language processing. The working groups came up with specific proposals for evaluation methods and for additional workshops focused on specific applications. There was a panel discussion on the need for a large corpus of both written and spoken language that could be used for training sets and test sets for specific applications.

Partial contents: Grammar; Syntax/Semantics Interaction; Semantics; Demo Environment; Change in Key Personnel; Darpa Meetings.

The current study was carried out to compare the skills of understanding complex syntax at children attending to preschool education institutions. In the current study, relational screening model, a model providing to determine the current study, was used. The working group of the study was made up of 224 children at the age of 4-5 attending to a preschool education institution in Turkey and Cyprus in the educational year of 2015-2016. In order to gather general information regarding the children and their families, "General Information Form" was used and "The Instrument of Evaluating the Criteria Dependent Complex Syntax Understanding Skills (ECDCSUS)", which was developed by Akoglu and Acarlar (2012), was used to compare the skills of understanding complex syntax at children as a data collection instrument. So as to explain what level children's skills of understanding complex syntax, standard deviation and mean values of children's skills of understanding complex syntax were given in the study. In order to determine whether there was a difference between the skills of understanding complex syntax of the children attending to a preschool education institution in Turkey and Cyprus and the skills of understanding complex syntax of children at the age of 4 and 5, Mann Whitney U-Test was used in terms of the items of ECDCSUS. At the end of the research, it was found that the scores of the skills of understanding complex syntax at children attending to a preschool education had a statistically significant difference in terms of country and age variables.

Partial contents: Syntax/Pragmatics Interaction; Semantics; Work on Multiple Domains; Naval Domain; Change in Key Personnel; Summary of Substantive Information from Meetings and Conferences.

This R&D Status Report covers progress in a study on natural language understanding which uses SDC Logic Bases Systems and Integrated Syntax and Semantics Progress areas include grammar work, semantics, improvement of computer facilities, change in personnel, as summary of meetings attended and a fiscal status report.

During the period 4/29/85 to 4/29/87, Unisys (formerly SDC) and New York University have pursued joint research on natural-language text understanding, as part of the DARPA Strategic Computing Program in support of the Fleet Command Center Battle Management Program (FCCBMP). During this time, two groups have collaborated on Proteus-I, a natural-language text-understanding system that processes the remarks field of messages (casualty reports or CASREPs) about failures of starting air compressors (SACs). The goal of the research is to demonstrate a system capable of understanding paragraph-length messages in a restricted domain. Features of this joint Unisys/NYU system are (1) Creation of an integrated system for the detailed understanding of text; the system includes modules for syntax, semantics, reference resolution, and temporal processing; (2) Grammatical coverage providing the correct parse for 90% of CASREP sentences, including a full treatment of co-ordinate conjunction and an integrated treatment of sentenial fragments characteristic of message traffic; (3) Automatic production of a tabular summary of diagnostic information for sample CASREPs; (4) Construction of a qualitative model to starting air compressor; and (5) Use of the qualitative model to simulate normal and faulty behavior described by natural-language phrases.

Revisions to the grammar have been made to expand coverage of various complex object types and to ensure correct labeling of nodes for semantics in these objects. We implemented a new version of syntax/semantics interaction that uses the existing semantic interpreter and applies selection restrictions expressed in terms of constraints on thematic role assignments. The semantic interpreter was extended to analyze adjectives as prenominal modifiers in the same manner that it interprets prenominal past participles. The temporal relations specifying the temporal structure of situations and the partial ordering among them consist of binary Prolog terms. A graphic display of these relations was integrated into the X-window interface. Processing of the discourse prompt/response relationship has been implemented. Three pieces of documentation were prepared describing how to use the PUNDIT system; they are included as appendices to this report. Keywords: PUNDIT text processing system; User manuals; Computational linguistics; Lexicography.

Revisions to the grammar have been made to expand coverage of various complex object types and to ensure correct labeling of nodes for semantics in these objects. We implemented a new version of syntax/semantics interaction that uses the existing semantic interpreter and applies selection restrictions expressed in terms of constraints on thematic role assignments. The semantic interpreter was extended to analyze adjectives as prenominal modifiers in the same manner that it interprets prenominal past participles. The temporal relations specifying the temporal structure of situations and the partial ordering among them consist of binary Prolog terms. A graphic display of these relations was integrated into the X-window interface. Processing of the discourse prompt/response relationship has been implemented. Three pieces of documentation were prepared describing how to use the PUNDIT system; they are included as appendices to this report. Keywords: PUNDIT text processing system; User manuals; Computational linguistics; Lexicography.

The overall objective of the natural-language understanding work is to demonstrate capabilities for 'understanding' information contained in free narrative. This understanding can be demonstrated in several ways: simulation of events described in the narrative (as done by the current Proteus system); summarization of events described in the narrative (also done by the current Proteus system); or creation of database or knowledge base. Such an understanding depends on the application of many sources of information, including syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic information, as well as detailed information about the specific domain in question. This report focused on several critical research issues in building Proteus: Portability, Modularity, Integration of multiple sources of information, Robustness, and a development environment for the construction of a large-scale natural language processing system.

The PUNDIT User's Guide is intended to provide a concise and general introduction to the facilities of the PUNDIT text-processing system. The intended audience is computational linguists familiar with Quintus Prolog. While this document is not a reference manual, and does not in itself contain sufficient information for you to either extend the system or port it to a new domain, we have tried to cover the operational basics: how to run PUNDIT (section 2) and how to interpret PUNDIT's output (Section 3). In addition, Section 4 documents the two main procedures for accessing the system (parse and pundit), as well as a number of other procedures which we make frequent use of as developers. Appendix A and Appendix B will help you set the system up. Appendix D identifies the core and domain files, and Appendix E lists papers, presentations, and technical documentation available for PUNDIT. The User's Guide is designed to accompany a subset of the text-understanding software which has been developed at the Paoli Research Center, as it exists on the date of publication: the core components of PUNDIT, together with the domain-specific components developed to process Navy tactical messages (RAINFORMs). This domain will be referred to henceforth as the MUCK domain (an acronym for the message understanding conference which occasioned the development of the software).

This study aims to: (1) assess the charge textbooks Syntax: "Sentence" bahasa Indonesia is based on a needs analysis; (2) analyzing the breakdown of understanding Syntax: "Sentence" Indonesian with contextual approach; (3) test the effectiveness of understanding Syntax: "Sentence" Indonesian with kontekstua approach. This research was conducted through qualitative and quantitative approaches with fourth semester students at three private colleges and the universities throughout Surakarta, Indonesia in 2014/2015. Quantitative study conducted through the instrument used by the student to understand Syntax Indonesian sentences by using a contextual approach to determine the ability of students to understand the syntax Indonesian sentences in solving these problems. All instruments before deploying were tested for validity and reliability of their needs. Qualitative studies are used to reinforce the results of interviews with six lecturers Syntax Study Program Indonesian language and literature at universities in Surakarta, namely the University of Veterans Bangun Nusantara Sukoharjo, Muhammadiyah University Surakarta, Widya Dharma University Klaten, Sebelas Maret University Surakarta. The results showed that the majority of students implement contextual learning by doing lesson plans that all students perform implement, but to look back make most students do not review anything. Based on the result of exposure to the development of prototypes, the value of t (8,24) > t table (1.69), then Ho is accepted. There are differences post test conventional class and experimental class on Indonesian syntactic ability. From the calculations, the average scores for post test conventional class is 70.45, while the average for post test 79.24. This indicates that the average score post test greater than the average score of pre test. Thus the effectiveness of the test results with the textbook syntactic contextual approach classed either.

The lexical reader has been modified to allow the PUNDIT Natural Language Processing system to recognize abbreviations ending in periods. PUNDIT previously had not been able to distinguish between periods ending abbreviations and periods ending sentences; consequently, it was not able to parse sentences with internal punctuation. Several meetings have been held to identify a discrete yet useful arena for developing a more flexible control strategy in syntactic and semantic processing of text. Currently, Pundit's control mechanism flows from the syntactic module. (Semantic data is used as a filter on the syntax, via the recently implemented selectional component, but this filtering does not change the control structure). The meetings have focused on the distribution of lexical information, which is dispersed both in the lexicon used by the syntactic parser and in the semantic lexical entries with their associated syntactic mapping rules. One proposal that has emerged would exploit the semantic component's potential to predict verb transitivity on the basis of selectional information and thereby handle the phenomenon of transitivity alternation, i.e., verbs which have transitive and intransitive uses. This would be useful because many verbs in English exhibit transitivity alternations.

understanding minimalist syntax

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Progress includes continuing to port Pundit to the Trident domain of maintenance reports while at the same time extending coverage in the RAINFORMS and CASREPS domains. Parallel development in the three domains has had a synergistic effect on the overall system, as features implemented for one domain become available for the others. Keywords: Natural language comprehension, Computer programming.

Progress includes continuing to port Pundit to the Trident domain of maintenance reports while at the same time extending coverage in the RAINFORMS and CASREPS domains. Parallel development in the three domains has had a synergistic effect on the overall system, as features implemented for one domain become available for the others. Keywords: Natural language comprehension, Computer programming.

Progress includes continuing to port Pundit to the Trident domain of maintenance reports while at the same time extending coverage in the RAINFORMS and CASREPS domains. Parallel development in the three domains has had a synergistic effect on the overall system, as features implemented for one domain become available for the others. Keywords: Natural language comprehension, Computer programming.

Progress includes continuing to port Pundit to the Trident domain of maintenance reports while at the same time extending coverage in the RAINFORMS and CASREPS domains. Parallel development in the three domains has had a synergistic effect on the overall system, as features implemented for one domain become available for the others. Keywords: Natural language comprehension, Computer programming.