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U.S. Army Training Circular # TC 9-60 Communications-Electronics Fundamentals: Basic Principles of Alternating Current and Direct Current. August 2004. Preface x Chapter 1 Safety 1-1 Overview 1-1 Danger Signs of Equipment Malfunction 1-1 Electrical Shock 1-2 Questions 1-5 Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Electricity 2-1 Matter 2-1 Energy Levels 2-2 Shells and Subshells 2-5 Ionization 2-7 Conductors, Semiconductors, and Insulators 2-7 Electrostatics 2-8 Static Electricity 2-8 Nature of Charges 2-9 Charged Bodies 2-10 Coulomb's Law of Charges 2-10 Electric Fields 2-10 Magnetism 2-12 Energy and Work 2-24 Electrical Charges 2-25 Voltage Production 2-27 Electric Current 2-34 DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. "This publication supersedes FM 11-60, 8 November 1982, and FM 11-61, 8 November 1982. Electrical Resistance 2-38 Conductance 2-41 Electrical Resistors 2-41 Wattage Rating 2-43 Standard Color Code System 2-44 Simplying the Color Code 2-46 Questions 2-49 Chapter 3 Direct Current 3-1 Basic Electric Circuit 3-1 Schematic Diagrams 3-1 Ohm's Law 3-2 Power 3-5 Series Direct Current Circuits 3-10 Kirchhoffs Voltage Law 3-24 Circuit Terms and Characteristics 3-25 Parallel Direct Current Circuits 3-29 Series-Parallel Direct Current Circuits 3-52 Combination-Circuit Problems 3-52 Questions 3-58 Chapter 4 Batteries 4-1 Battery Components 4-1 Primary and Secondary Cells 4-3 Electrochemical Action 4-3 Polarization of the Cell 4-6 Local Action 4-6 Types of Cells 4-6 Batteries as Power Sources 4-9 Battery Construction 4-1 1 Battery Maintenance 4-14 Safety Precautions with Batteries 4-23 Capacity and Rating of Batteries 4-23 Battery Charging 4-24 Questions 4-26 Chapter 5 Concepts of Alternating Current 5-1 Alternating Current And Direct Current 5-1 Disadvantages of Direct Current Compared to Alternating Current 5-2 Electromagnetism 5-2 Magnetic Fields 5-3 Basic Alternating Current Generation 5-8 Alternating Current Values 5-14 Sine Waves in Phase 5-17 Sine Waves Out of Phase 5-18 Ohm's Law in Alternating Current Circuits 5-19 Questions 5-20 Chapter 6 Inductance 6-1 Characteristics of Inductance 6-1 Electromotive Force 6-1 Self-Inductance 6-2 Counter Electromotive Force 6-4 Factors Affecting Coil Inductance 6-7 Unit of Inductance 6-1 1 Power Loss in an Inductor 6-12 Mutual Inductance 6-12 Questions 6-14 Chapter 7 Capacitance 7-1 Electrostatic Field 7-1 Simple Capacitor 7-2 Capacitor Rating 7-5 Charging and Discharging a Capacitor 7-6 Charge and Discharge of a Capacitor 7-9 Capacitors in Series and in Parallel 7-10 Fixed Capacitor 7-12 Capacitive and Inductive Reactance 7-15 Inductive Reactance 7-17 Capacitors and Alternating Current 7-18 Impedance 7-20 Questions 7-21 Chapter 8 Transformers 8-1 Introduction to Transformers 8-1 Basic Operation of a Transformer 8-3 Applications of Transformers 8-4 Transformer Components 8-4 Core Characteristics 8-5 Transformer Windings 8-8 Schematic Symbols for Transformers 8-10 No-Load Condition 8-1 1 Counter Electromotive Force 8-12 Voltage in the Secondary 8-12 Turns and Voltage Ratios 8-12 Effect of a Load 8-15 Power Relationship between Primary and Secondary Windings 8-15 Actual Transformer Losses 8-15 Transformer Efficiency 8-18 Transformer Ratings 8-19 Distribution Transformers 8-19 Isolation Transformers 8-19 Transformer Taps 8-20 Autotransformers 8-21 Transformer Safety 8-23 Questions 8-24 Appendix A Glossary .... References Index .... Glossary- 1 References-1 Index- 1 Figures Figure 2-1. Structures of Simple Atoms 2-3 Figure 2-2. Excitation by a Photon 2-4 Figure 2-3. Shell Designation 2-6 Figure 2-4. Copper Atom 2-6 Figure 2-5. Producing Static Electricity by Friction 2-9 Figure 2-6. Reaction Between Charged Bodies 2-1 1 Figure 2-7. Lines of Force 2-12 Figure 2-8. Iron Filings Cling to the Poles of a Magnet 2-1 5 Figure 2-9. A Bar Magnet Acts as a Compass 2-15 Figure 2-10. The Earth is a Magnet 2-16 Figure 2-11. Molecular Magnets 2-1 8 Figure 2-12. Magnetized Iron Atom 2-18 Figure 2-13. Pattern Formed by Iron Filings 2-1 9 Figure 2-14. Bar Magnet Showing Lines of Force 2-20 Figure 2-15. Magnetic Poles in Close Proximity 2-20 Figure 2-16. Magnetized Nail 2-22 Figure 2-17. Effects of a Magnetic Substance in a Magnetic Field 2-23 Figure 2-18. Magnetic Shield 2-23 Figure 2-19. Water Analogy of Electric Difference in Potential 2-27 Figure 2-20. Piezoelectric Effect 2-29 Figure 2-21. Voltage Produced by Heat 2-30 Figure 2-22. Voltage Produced by Light 2-31 Figure 2-23. Voltaic Cell 2-33 Figure 2-24. Voltage Produced by Magnetism 2-35 Figure 2-25. Directed Drift 2-36 Figure 2-26. Effect of Directed Drift 2-37 Figure 2-27. Atomic Spacing in Conductors 2-39 Figure 2-28. Square and Circular Mil 2-40 Figure 2-29. Types of Resistors 2-42 Figure 2-30. Resistors of Different Wattage Ratings 2-44 Figure 2-31. Resistor Color Codes 2-44 Figure 3-1. Flashlight Schematic 3-2 Figure 3-2. Determining Resistance in a Basic Circuit 3-4 Figure 3-3. Determining Voltage in a Basic Circuit 3-4 Figure 3-4. Ohm's Law in Diagram Form 3-6 Figure 3-5. Summary of Basic Formulas 3-7 Figure 3-6. Comparison of Basic and Series Circuits 3-1 1 Figure 3-7. Calculating Total Resistance in a Series Circuit 3-12 Figure 3-8. Calculating the Value of One Resistance in a Series Circuit 3-12 Figure 3-9. Current in a Series Circuit 3-13 Figure 3-10. Calculating Individual Voltage Drops in a Series Circuit 3-14 Figure 3-11. Calculating Applied Voltage in a Series Circuit 3-15 Figure 3-12. Calculating Total Power in a Series Circuit 3-17 Figure 3-13. Solving for Various Values in a Series Circuit 3-19 Figure 3-14. Computing Series Circuit Values 3-21 Figure 3-15. Normal and Open Circuit 3-26 Figure 3-16. Normal and Short Circuit Conditions 3-26 Figure 3-17. Short Due to Broken Insulation 3-27 Figure 3-18. Effect of Internal Source 3-28 Figure 3-19. Effect of Source Resistance on Power Output 3-29 Figure 3-20. Example of a Basic Parallel Circuit 3-30 Figure 3-21. Voltage Comparison in a Parallel Circuit 3-31 Figure 3-22. Example Problem of a Parallel Circuit 3-31 Figure 3-23. Analysis of Current in a Parallel Circuit 3-33 Figure 3-24. Current Behavior in a Parallel Circuit 3-35 Figure 3-25. Circuit for Example Problem 3-37 Figure 3-26. Two Equal Resistors Connected 3-38 Figure 3-27. Example Circuit With Unequal Parallel Resistors 3-39 Figure 3-28. Example of a Parallel Circuit With Unequal Branch Resistors 3-40 Figure 3-29. Parallel Circuit With Two Unequal Resistors 3-41 Figure 3-30. Example of a Parallel Circuit 3-42 Figure 3-31. Parallel Circuit With Equivalent Circuit 3-44 Figure 3-32. Parallel Circuit Problem 3-46 Figure 3-33. First Equivalent Parallel Circuit 3-48 Figure 3-34. Second Equivalent Parallel Circuit 3-49 Figure 3-35. Parallel Circuit Redrawn to Final Equivalent Circuit 3-50 Figure 3-36. Simple Series-Parallel Circuit 3-54 Figure 4-1. Simple Voltaic or Galvanic Cell 4-1 Figure 4-2. Dry Cell Cross-Sectional View 4-2 Figure 4-3. Secondary Cell 4-5 Figure 4-4. Cutaway View of the General-Purpose Dry Cell 4-7 Figure 4-5. Series-Connected Cells 4-10 Figure 4-6. Parallel-Connected Cells 4-1 1 Figure 4-7. Lead-Acid Construction 4-12 Figure 4-8. Lead-Acid Battery Plate Arrangement 4-13 Figure 4-9. Nickel-Cadmium Cell 4-13 Figure 4-10. Leak Test 4-14 Figure 4-11. Battery Terminal and Clamp Cleaners 4-1 5 Figure 4-12. Cleaning a Dirty Battery Terminal 4-16 Figure 4-13. Cleaning a Dirty Battery Clamp 4-16 Figure 4-14. Reduced Contact Area Equals Increased Heating 4-17 Figure 4-15. Battery Logbook 4-18 Figure 4-16. Hydrometer 4-19 Figure 5-1. Comparing Direct Current and Alternating Current Flow in a Wire 5-1 Figure 5-2. Magnetic Field Around a Current-Carrying Conductor 5-3 Figure 5-3. Magnetic Field Around a Current-Carrying Conductor, Detailed View 5-5 Figure 5-4. Magnetic Field Around Two Parallel Conductors 5-6 Figure 5-5. Magnetic Field Produced by a Current-Carrying Coil 5-7 Figure 5-6. Left-Hand Rule for Coils 5-8 Figure 5-7. Simple Alternating Current Generator 5-9 Figure 5-8. Basic Alternating Current Generator 5-9 Figure 5-9. Left-Hand Rule for Generators 5-10 Figure 5-10. Period of a Sine Wave 5-12 Figure 5-11. Wavelength 5-13 Figure 5-12. Wavelength Measurement 5-13 Figure 5-13. Maximum of Peak Value 5-14 Figure 5-14. Peak and Peak-to-Peak Values 5-15 Figure 5-15. Various Values Used to Indicate Sine Wave Amplitude 5-16 Figure 5-16. Voltage and Current Waves In Phase 5-17 Figure 5-17. Voltage Waves 90 Degrees Out of Phase 5-18 Figure 5-18. Voltage Waves 180 Degrees Out of Phase 5-19 Figure 6-1. Generation of an Electromotive Force in an Electrical Conductor 6-2 Figure 6-2. Current Movement and Flux Direction Relationship 6-3 Figure 6-3. Self-Inductance 6-5 Figure 6-4. Inductance 6-6 Figure 6-5. Inductor Types and Schematic Symbols 6-7 Figure 6-6. Inductor Factor (Turns) 6-8 Figure 6-7. Inductance Factor (Diameter) 6-9 Figure 6-8. Inductance Factor (Coil Length) 6-10 Figure 6-9. Inductance Factor (Core Materials) 6-10 Figure 6-10. Coils of Various Inductances 6-11 Figure 6-11. Effect of the Position of Coils on Mutual Induction 6-13 Figure 6-12. Mutual Inductance 6-13 Figure 7-1. Electrostatic Lines of Force Surrounding Two Unlike Charged Particles 7-1 Figure 7-2. Electrostatic Lines of Force Surrounding Two Like Charged Particles 7-2 Figure 7-3. Distortion of an Electron's Orbit Due to Electrostatic Force 7-2 Figure 7-4. Distortion of Electron Orbits in a Dielectric 7-3 Figure 7-5. Circuit Symbols for Capacitors 7-3 Figure 7-6. Charging a Capacitor 7-7 Figure 7-7. Electron Motion During Charge 7-7 Figure 7-8. Discharging a Capacitor 7-9 Figure 7-9. Capacitors in Series 7-10 Figure 7-10. Parallel Capacitive Circuit 7-1 1 Figure 7-11. Construction of an Electrolytic Capacitor 7-13 Figure 7-12. Paper Capacitor 7-14 Figure 7-13. Voltage and Current Waveforms 7-16 Figure 7-14. Comparison of Sine Wave and Circle in an Inductive Circuit 7-17 Figure 7-15. Phase Relationship of Voltage and Current in a Capacitive Circuit 7-18 Figure 8-1. Automobile Step-Up Transformer 8-2 Figure 8-2. Basic Transformer Action 8-3 Figure 8-3. Hollow-Core Construction 8-5 Figure 8-4. Windings Wrapped Around Laminations 8-6 Figure 8-5. Shell-Type Construction 8-6 Figure 8-6. Exploded View of Shell-Type Transformer Construction 8-7 Figure 8-7. Cutaway View of Shell-Type Core With Windings 8-7 Figure 8-8. 450/1 20-Volt Step-Down Transformer 8-8 Figure 8-9. Polarity Markings for Large Transformers 8-9 Figure 8-10. Instantaneous Polarity 8-10 Figure 8-11. Schematic Symbols for Various Types of Transformers 8-10 Figure 8-12. Transformer Under No-Load Conditions 8-11 Figure 8-13. Transformer Turns and Voltage Ratios 8-13 Figure 8-14. Simple Transformer Indicating Primary and Secondary Winding Flux Relationship 8-16 Figure 8-15. Schematic Diagram of a Typical Transformer 8-20 Figure 8-16. Schematic Diagram of an Autotransformer With a Movable Tap 8-21 Figure 8-17. Step-Down Transformer 8-21 Figure 8-18. Properly Functioning and Damaged Autotransformer Winding 8-22 Table 2-1. Standard Color Code for Resistors 2-45 Table 4-1. Specific Gravity of the Lead-Acid Battery 4-20 Table 7-1. Dielectric Constants for Common Materials 7-4 Digitized by the US Army.