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This document analyzes TCP-based routing protocols, the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), the Label Distribution Protocol (LDP), the Path Computation Element Communication Protocol (PCEP), and the Multicast Source Distribution Protocol (MSDP), according to guidelines set forth in Section 4.2 of "Keying and Authentication for Routing Protocols Design Guidelines", RFC 6518.

This document analyzes TCP-based routing protocols, the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), the Label Distribution Protocol (LDP), the Path Computation Element Communication Protocol (PCEP), and the Multicast Source Distribution Protocol (MSDP), according to guidelines set forth in Section 4.2 of "Keying and Authentication for Routing Protocols Design Guidelines", RFC 6518.

The wireless sensor networks (WSNs) believed to be as a hot research area due to their ranges in various fields of applications. Clustering is the more efficient techniques considered to resolve the problems of energy consumption in WSNs. The clustering has assured its effectiveness, specifically with high dynamic networks at which all nodes are represented in the clustering and all the data value can be collecting by sensor nodes with a cluster head (CH). The energy consumption as well as network traffic are balancing, the (CH) must be exchanged between all sensor nodes and the clustering size could be closely determined at various portions of the network. The key point at issue in WSN is to improve the energy-efficient algorithms with Grid based clustering for extending the lifetime of the networks, reducing cost, in addition to increasing the reliability of the network. The sensor nodes prepared with a power sources at limited period, so that the Grid Based Clustering algorithm (GBC) which efficiently employing sensor nodes energy have the ability to preserve an extended network lifetime. Sensor node Performances of the network mainly depend on the routing protocols, which are application based, four routing protocols LEACH, OLSR, AODV, and DSR in clustering WSN are estimated with Qualnet simulator. The results demonstrate that DSR outperforms in term of throughput, and end to end delay which compared to others while OLSR have highest value of half number of alive nodes per round.

The main interesting aspect of the digital era is the widely spread ease of communication from one end of the world to the other end of the world. There is a revolution in communication, digitalization, globalization, video calling, wireless data transfer and this is possible due to networking. Initially computer networks is the data sharing where data such as documents, file, reports, presentation files, videos, images etc can be shared within a local network or remotely connected networks. Traditional data networking is to empower end-to-end information transfer. The data in such networks are carried across point-to-point links and the intermediate nodes just forward the packets, where the payload of the packets is not modified. Traditional LANs need wires, which may be difficult to set up in some situations.It is very much understandable and clearly visible that wired communication is being completely overtaken by wireless technologies in the recent past. Wireless LANs, by its very nature, empowers with increased mobility and flexibility. Wi-Fi devices get connected to the internet through WLAN and access points. 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz ISM bands are used by Wi-Fi. Also, it is to be understood that, a wireless adhoc network is distributed in its nature. It is also to be noted that, the adhoc nature makes these network to rely on any of the pre-existing infrastructure. The data forwarding shall happen from the nodes very much dynamically based on the connectivity and the routing algorithm used. WSN is a worth mentioning category of adhoc networks. WSN, as we are aware of, provides wireless communication infrastructure within the sensors for any chosen domain. A sensor network is composed with many sensor nodes from a region which has been considered. 

Mobile Ad hoc Net-Bork (MANET) is an aggregation of wireless mobile nodes which dynamically exchange data without any fixed infrastructure or a base station. Nodes rely on multi-hop routing protocols to station. Nodes rely on multi-hop routing protocols to forward data packets sent from a source node to a destination node which is out of its transmission range. Consequently this paper is subjected to the comparatnæ study between DSR; AODV reactive (on-demand) routing protocols and evaluates their relative performance in terrns of Packet delivery ratio, Average End-to-End delay and Throughput. From the simulation results and analysis, suitable routing protocol can be identified for a specific network

Wireless sensor networks comprise of sensor nodes that have constrained preparing ability, little memory and low energy source. These nodes are sent haphazardly and frequently thickly in nature. In observing applications, sensor nodes sense information from nature intermittently and after that transmit them to a base station which is called sink node. In this way information transmission expends node's energy taking into account transmission separation. In many wireless sensors arranges, the energy wellspring of the node is constrained and can't be minimized. Here, we have proposed the Efficient Energy based Multipath Cluster Routing Protocol for minimizing the energy utilization in WSNs. In multipath routing, system is composed as a gathering of networks. It gives burden adjusting and expanded throughput to the system. As per information transmission component of WSN, we evaluate the forward transmission zone, characterize forward energy thickness which constitutes forward-mindful variable with connection weight. For energy effective transmission in occasion driven WSN, information ought to be decreased. It obliges legitimate directing strategy for solid transmission of collected information to sink from the source nodes. Propose another correspondence convention in light of forward-mindful calculate request to focus next-bounce node and IEAR directing calculation is to decrease the quantity of transmissions and therefore adjusting the energy utilization, drawing out the system capacity lifetime and to enhance QoS of WSN. K. Komali | G. Mutyalamma"Energy Efficient Routing Protocols for Node Distribution in Wireless Sensor Networks" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-1 , December 2017, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd8224.pdf Article URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/computer-science/computer-network/8224/energy-efficient-routing-protocols-for-node--distribution-in-wireless-sensor-networks/k-komali

The swift expansion of the Internet of Things (IoT) has increased the application of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) in various fields, such as environmental monitoring, smart cities, and industrial automation. Nevertheless, the fundamental energy constraints of sensor nodes pose considerable challenges for sustaining network durability and ensuring reliable data transmission. Conventional routing protocols such as Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH) and PEGASIS have been commonly implemented, but they frequently show limited adaptability to fluctuating network circumstances, resulting in uneven energy distribution and diminished network lifespan. This research examines adaptive routing protocols that can adjust responsively to variations in node energy levels, network architecture, and environmental conditions. In particular, protocols like the Hierarchical Clustering-based Energy-Harvesting Uninterrupted Coverage (HCEH-UC) and Improved Energy-Efficient LEACH (IEE-LEACH) are evaluated for their capability to improve energy efficiency and prolong the operational duration of WSNs. Through simulation studies, we assess and compare the performance of adaptive versus traditional protocols regarding energy consumption, Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR), and network longevity. This study adds to the ongoing endeavors to enhance WSN routing protocols, providing valuable perspectives on future integration with machine learning for better adaptability.

A central issue in the design of a packet switched communications network is the development of an efficient routing protocol, which determines the routes followed by the information as it traverses the network. The performance of a static routing protocol that allows for multiple path routing based on the use of routing fractions, is analyzed using computer simulation. Comparison is made between the performance of this protocol and that of a minimum number of hops routing protocol. Routing fractions calculated by two different methods are used and their relative performance analyzed. A comparative analysis is done of the performance of ths protocol when using virtual circuit service and datagram service in the network. Provision is made to extend use of the simulation program to analyze dynamic routing cases using routing fractions. (Author)

The ITU-T has defined an architecture and requirements for operating an Automatically Switched Optical Network (ASON).

A mobile ad-hoc network (MANET) is an autonomous system of mobile nodes connected by wireless links. The performance of MANET is related to the efficiency of the routing protocols in adapting to frequently changing network topology and link status. This thesis addresses the issue by comparing the relative performance of three key ad-hoc routing protocols: Destination-sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV), Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) and Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR). The protocols are tested based on two scenarios, namely, tactical networks for ships and sensor-based network nodes. The objective is to validate the scalability and effectiveness of the protocols. Four performance metrics were measured by varying the maximum speed of mobile hosts, network size and traffic load, to assess the routing capability and protocol efficiency. The simulation results indicate that AODV performs better than OSLR and DSDV in the first scenario. Although OLSR also performed relatively well, the associated high routing overhead is the dominant reason for not choosing it. On the other hand, OLSR emerged as the protocol of choice for sensor networks, where the high routing overhead is counteracted by consistently better performance in all other metrics. Due to the slow evolution of the sensor network topology, OLSR performed satisfactorily for best effort traffic but needed subtle adjustments to balance between latency and bandwidth to meet the requirements of delay-sensitive applications. Lastly, default parameters of OLSR were tweaked and recommendations were made with results that showed promising ways to further improve the performance of OLSR in sensor networks, albeit not as significantly as in the tactical networks for the ship case.

This paper focuses on energy efficient routing protocols of wireless sensor network for the crop monitoring of precision agriculture. Precision agriculture can be defined as the advanced technology which is used the art and science to enhance crop production. In order to develop the precision agriculture, wireless sensor network technology becomes main issues in crop monitoring system. In this paper, two energy efficient and scalable routing protocols, Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy LEACH and Distributed Energy Efficient Clustering DEEC protocols are analyzed in 100 square meters area with 100 sensor nodes. This paper mainly presents the dead nodes, alive nodes and amount of data received of routing protocols which will become main issues of crop monitoring system in precision agriculture. MATLAB software is utilized as core simulator for this research. By Than Htike Aung | Kyaw Zin Latt "Performance Analysis on Energy Efficient and Scalable Routing Protocols of Wireless Sensor Network for Precision Agriculture" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-5 , August 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd27989.pdf Paper URL https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electronics-and-communication-engineering/27989/performance-analysis-on-energy-efficient-and-scalable-routing-protocols-of-wireless-sensor-network-for-precision-agriculture/than-htike-aung

Dominant Pruning (DP) is a distributed connected dominating-set algorithm that can be used for reducing the impact of flooding in wireless ad-hoc networks. We propose an enhanced dominant pruning (EDP) approach to be used in the route discovery process of on-demand routing protocols. To show the benefits of EDP, we integrated EDP into the Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) protocol. We present detailed simulation results showing that our approach improves standard AODV in most aspects, and that it is simple and easy to implement. Our approach is compared against AODV and OLSR, as good representatives of on-demand and proactive routing for ad-hoc wireless networks.

In this report, a study on hierarchical routing protocols for heterogeneous mobile Ad Hoc wireless networks is presented. The main thrust of the investigation is to identify a potential hierarchical routing scheme that is best suited for a heterogeneous tactical Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET). Such networks consist of mobile nodes that are characterized by different communications capabilities, such as multiple radio interfaces. The report highlights the benefits and issues of the different routing protocols, namely the H-OLSR and H-LANMAR, as they pertain to a military tactical scenario. We first discuss the context for the use of a hierarchical routing strategy by describing a typical military scenario where a number of platforms are used each supporting link types of varying capabilities. We then discuss the rational for selecting a proactive hierarchical routing scheme for typical tactical MANETs. We discuss in detail the routing algorithms of the two protocols under investigation. Finally we conduct an experimental comparison study between the two routing protocols. Our experiments reveal that H-OLSR outperforms H-LANMAR for most of the group mobility scenarios that can potentially be used in the operation of a tactical MANET.

A Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET) is a wireless network with mobile terminals that are able to form a temporary network without wired infrastructure and centralized administration. Due to its open architecture and mobility features, MANET is in demand by researchers and industries for various application areas. Multicasting is mainly used for group-oriented computing, which can reduce communication costs, processing overhead and delivery delay. Many application such as disaster management, emergency relief, distributed database and multimedia applications like video conferencing, video-on-demand services require multicast communication. Various multicast routing protocols are available to support such multicast communications. MANET’s Inherent characteristic such as unpredictable node density, node mobility and dynamic communication environment generates challenges to provide an efficient multicast routing protocol. A tree based multicast protocol MAODV and mesh based multicast protocol ODMRP are compared for performance metrics with different network situations. Performance evaluation is done for packet delivery ratio, average end-to-end delay, routing overhead and throughput with CBR and multimedia traffic for varying node density, number of senders, multicast group size and node mobility.

Modern warfare is placing an increasing reliance on global communications. Currently under development are several Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite systems that propose to deliver voice and data traffic to subscribers anywhere on the globe. However, very little is known about the performance of conventional routing protocols under orbital conditions where the topology changes on a scale of minutes rather than days. This thesis compares two routing protocols in a LEO environment. One (Extended Bellman-Ford) is a conventional terrestrial routing protocol, while the other (Darting) is a new protocol which has been proposed as suitable for use in LEO networks. These protocols are compared via computer simulation in two of the proposed LEO systems (Globalstar and Iridium), under various traffic intensities. Comparative measures of packet delay, convergence speed, and protocol overhead are made It was found both protocols were roughly equivalent in end-to-end delay characteristics, though the Darting protocol had a much higher overhead load and demonstrated higher instability at network update periods. For example, while steady state end-to-end delays were within a few milliseconds, in one case Darting showed an increase of 764% in convergence time over Extended Bellman-Ford with an increase of 149% in overhead. Over all cases, Darting required an average of 72.1% more overhead than Extended Bellman-Ford to perform the same work. Darting was handicapped by its strong correlation between data traffic and protocol overhead. Modifications to reduce this overhead would result in much closer performance.

In an enterprise network, multiple dynamic routing protocols are used for forwarding packets with the best routes. Therefore, performance of the network is based on routing protocols and the route redistribution is an important issue in an enterprise network that has been configured by multiple different routing protocols in its routers. So, aim of the system is to analyze the performance and comparison of different Interior Gateway routing protocols. Routing is depended on many parameters critical such as network convergence time, Ethernet delay, throughput, end to end delay, jitter, packet delivery, security and bandwidth, etc. In this paper, the analysis of characteristics and the performance of the different routing protocols as Routing Information Protocol RIP , Open Shortest Path First OSPF and Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol EIGRP are evaluated in a university network. The performance evaluation are based on end to end packet delay, network convergence time, packet delay variation and administrative distance, etc. The analysis focuses on the performance of the routing protocols with its routing table in a simulator. The Simulation software can be used to evaluate and compare the performance of the routing protocols. The simulator return the routing table for each node or router in the university network which would contain the best path to reach the remote destination on the metric chosen based on the routing protocol implemented. The simulation software give results used to evaluate the performance of routing protocols, the performance of different routing protocols will be compared, and to analyze the convergence time and administrative distance of routing protocols. By Kyaw Zay Oo "Performance Evaluation of Routing Protocols in University Network" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-5 , August 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd26582.pdf Paper URL https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/information-technology/26582/performance-evaluation-of-routing-protocols-in-university-network/kyaw-zay-oo

Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) at the present time is a major growing technology. Sensor networks provide a powerful combination of distributed sensing, computing and communication. They lend themselves to countless applications including security and surveillance, control, actuation and maintenance of complex systems but at the same time offer numerous challenges due to their peculiarities.WSN face security attacks already experienced by Internet and wireless ad hoc networks. In this paper, we present the attacks on WSN and compare some secure routing protocols of sensor networks

In simple terms, a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is a dispersed network made up of nodes. Sensor nodes or motes are the more prevalent names for these nodes. In order to comprehend the issues with WSN, a complete analysis of the current protocols is accomplished. The sensor is a consistently dispersed, restriction-free device that uses energy from a finite supply. Numerous novel routing protocols have been developed expressly for wireless sensor networks, where energy awareness is a key design consideration. The routing protocols have received the majority of attention because they might vary according to the application and network design. The characteristics of WSNs are discussed in this study. The following section of this study investigates current routing methods for wireless sensor networks, classifies them, and contrasts and compares some of the leading routing protocols.

Geographic routing protocols greatly reduce the requirements of topology storage and provide flexibility in the accommodation of the dynamic behavior of mobile ad hoc networks. This paper presents performance evaluations and comparisons of two geographic routing protocols and the popular AODV protocol. The tradeoffs among the average path reliabilities, average conditional delays, average conditional numbers of hops, and area spectral efficiencies and the effects of various parameters are illustrated for finite ad hoc networks with randomly placed mobiles. This paper uses a dual method of closed-form analysis and simple simulation that is applicable to most routing protocols and provides a much more realistic performance evaluation than has previously been possible. Some features included in the new analysis are shadowing, exclusion and guard zones, distance-dependent fading, and interference correlation.

Ad-hoc networks are basically peer to peer multihop mobile wireless networks in which the information packets are transmitted in a ‘store and forward’ manner from a source to an arbitrary destination via intermediate nodes. The main objective of this paper is to evaluate the performance of various ad-hoc networks routing protocols viz. DSDV (Destination Sequence Distance Vector), DSR (Dynamic Source Routing) and AODV (Ad-hoc On Demand Distance Vector). The comparison of these protocols is based on different performance metrics, which are throughput, packet delivery ratio, routing overheads, packet drop and average end to end delay. The performance evaluation has been done by using simulation tool NS2 (Network Simulator) which is the main simulator.

Ad-hoc networks are basically peer to peer multihop mobile wireless networks in which the information packets are transmitted in a ‘store and forward’ manner from a source to an arbitrary destination via intermediate nodes. The main objective of this paper is to evaluate the performance of various ad-hoc networks routing protocols viz. DSDV (Destination Sequence Distance Vector), DSR (Dynamic Source Routing) and AODV (Ad-hoc On Demand Distance Vector). The comparison of these protocols is based on different performance metrics, which are throughput, packet delivery ratio, routing overheads, packet drop and average end to end delay. The performance evaluation has been done by using simulation tool NS2 (Network Simulator) which is the main simulator.

Network Routing Algorithms Protocols And Architectures

Journal on Today’s Ideas – Tomorrow’s Technologies, Vol. 5, No. 1, June 2017 pp. 50–63

Abstract Nodes (dynamic hubs) moves through wireless links without any fixed infrastructure in MANET. These properties make it vulnerable to any kind of new security attacks which absent in a traditional wired network. The routing protocols play an important role in transferring data. Mainly two basic routing such as cryptographic and trust based mechanism are used in ad-hoc network. Cryptographic mechanisms are used in routing protocols to secure data packets while transmitted in the network. The fundamental goal of cryptography is to address the confidentiality, data integrity, authentication, and non-repudiation in information security. But cryptographic techniques incur a high computational cost and can’t identify the nodes with malicious intention. So, employing cryptographic techniques in MANET are quite impractical as MANETs have limited resource and vulnerable to several security attacks. Therefore trust mechanism is used as an alternative to the cryptographic technique. There are several trust based protocols have been proposed for MANET. So in this paper comparison analysis of several trust based protocol has been done based on the advantages and disadvantages.

Ad hoc networks are comprised of a group of workstations or other wireless devices which communicate directly with each other to exchange information without centralized control or established infrastructure. In recent years, several routing protocols have been proposed for ad hoc networks and prominent among them are DSR, AODV and TORA. This survey paper provides an overview of these protocols by presenting their characteristics, functionality, benefits and limitations and then makes their comparative analysis. The objective is to make observations about how the performance of these protocols can be improved by using the quality assurance metrics.

Dynamic source routing protocol (DSR) is a common routing protocol in wireless network without infrastructure, called ad-hoc network, DSR used just above internet protocol (IP) at the network layer. The upper transport layer provides reliability by transmission control protocol (TCP) and user datagram protocol (UDP). The choice between DSR/TCP and DSR/UDP is an actual issue for network designers and engineers. The question arises: which one provides better quality of service (QoS) parameters, less delay and jitter, greater throughput, and data rates. This paper focuses on the study and analysis of DSR and comparison of DSR/TCP and DSR/UDP by simulation in network simulator (NS2) environment. Another comparison of DSR and ad hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) is provided. Design and simulation of the protocols in ad hoc network accurately describe the behavior in real system and QoS parameters are obtained.

In this paper, we present a comparative performance evaluation of three general-purpose on-demand multicast protocols, namely ADMR, MAODV, and ODMRP, focusing on the effects of changes such as increasing number of multicast receivers or sources, application sending pattern, and increasing number of nodes in the network. We use mobile networks composed of 100 or 200 nodes, with both a single active multicast group and multiple active multicast groups in the network, in a wide range of multicast scenarios. Although some simulation results for these protocols have been published before, the three protocols have not been compared, and prior studies have focused on smaller networks using a small set of simulation scenarios, many with only a single active multicast group. We focus here on the effects of the protocols' relative degree of on-demand behavior and their performance in different multicast scenarios.

In this paper, we present a comparative performance evaluation of three general-purpose on-demand multicast protocols, namely ADMR, MAODV, and ODMRP, focusing on the effects of changes such as increasing number of multicast receivers or sources, application sending pattern, and increasing number of nodes in the network. We use mobile networks composed of 100 or 200 nodes, with both a single active multicast group and multiple active multicast groups in the network, in a wide range of multicast scenarios. Although some simulation results for these protocols have been published before, the three protocols have not been compared, and prior studies have focused on smaller networks using a small set of simulation scenarios, many with only a single active multicast group. We focus here on the effects of the protocols' relative degree of on-demand behavior and their performance in different multicast scenarios.

Wireless sensor networks comprise of sensor nodes that have constrained preparing ability, little memory and low energy source. These nodes are sent haphazardly and frequently thickly in nature. In observing applications, sensor nodes sense information from nature intermittently and after that transmit them to a base station which is called sink node. In this way information transmission expends node's energy taking into account transmission separation. In many wireless sensors arranges, the energy wellspring of the node is constrained and can't be minimized. Here, we have proposed the Efficient Energy based Multipath Cluster Routing Protocol for minimizing the energy utilization in WSNs. In multipath routing, system is composed as a gathering of networks. It gives burden adjusting and expanded throughput to the system. As per information transmission component of WSN, we evaluate the forward transmission zone, characterize forward energy thickness which constitutes forward-mindful variable with connection weight. For energy effective transmission in occasion driven WSN, information ought to be decreased. It obliges legitimate directing strategy for solid transmission of collected information to sink from the source nodes. Propose another correspondence convention in light of forward-mindful calculate request to focus next-bounce node and IEAR directing calculation is to decrease the quantity of transmissions and therefore adjusting the energy utilization, drawing out the system capacity lifetime and to enhance QoS of WSN. K. Komali | G. Mutyalamma"Energy Efficient Routing Protocols for Node Distribution in Wireless Sensor Networks" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-1 , December 2017, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd8224.pdf Article URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/computer-science/computer-network/8224/energy-efficient-routing-protocols-for-node--distribution-in-wireless-sensor-networks/k-komali

The routing protocols Open Shortest Path First version 2 (OSPFv2), Intermediate System to Intermediate System (IS-IS), and Routing Information Protocol (RIP) currently define cleartext and MD5 (Message Digest 5) methods for authenticating protocol packets. Recently, effort has been made to add support for the SHA (Secure Hash Algorithm) family of hash functions for the purpose of authenticating routing protocol packets for RIP, IS-IS, and OSPF.

The Internet, as it stands today, is highly vulnerable to attacks. However, little has been done to understand and verify the formal security guarantees of proposed secure inter-domain routing protocols, such as Secure BGP (S-BGP). In this paper, we develop a sound program logic for SANDLog-a declarative specification language for secure routing protocols for verifying properties of these protocols. We prove invariant properties of SANDLog programs that run in an adversarial environment. As a step towards automated verification, we implement a verification condition generator (VCGen) to automatically extract proof obligations. VCGen is integrated into a compiler for SANDLog that can generate executable protocol implementations; and thus, both verification and empirical evaluation of secure routing protocols can be carried out in this unified framework. To validate our framework, we encoded several proposed secure routing mechanisms in SANDLog, verified variants of path authenticity properties by manually discharging the generated verification conditions in Coq, and generated executable code based on SANDLog specification and ran the code in simulation.

Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) operate without fixed infrastructure, with mobile nodes acting as both hosts and routers. These networks face challenges due to node mobility and limited resources, causing frequent changes in topology and instability. Clustering is essential to manage this issue. Significant research has been devoted to optimal clustering algorithms to improve cluster-based routing protocols (CBRP), such as the weighted clustering algorithm (WCA), optimal stable clustering algorithm (OSCA), lowest ID (LID) clustering algorithm, and highest connectivity clustering (HCC) algorithm. However, these protocols suffer from high re-clustering frequency and do not adequately account for energy efficiency, leading to network instability and reduced longevity. This work aims to improve the CBRP to create a more stable and long-lasting network. During cluster head (CH) selection, nodes with high residual energy or degree centrality are chosen as CH and backup cluster head (BCH). This approach eliminates the need for re-clustering, as the BCH can seamlessly replace a failing CH, ensuring continuous cluster maintenance. The proposed modified cluster-based routing protocol (MCBRP) evaluated network simulator 2 (ns2) demonstrates that MCBRP is more energy-efficient, selecting optimal CH and balancing the load to enhance network stability and longevity.

Routing protocols have been extended over time to use cryptographic mechanisms to ensure that data received from a neighboring router has not been modified in transit and actually originated from an authorized neighboring router.

The Generalized MPLS (GMPLS) suite of protocols has been defined to control different switching technologies as well as different applications. These include support for requesting TDM connections including Synchronous Optical Network/Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SONET/SDH) and Optical Transport Networks (OTNs).

Different routing protocols employ different mechanisms for securing protocol packets on the wire. While most already have some method for accomplishing cryptographic message authentication, in many cases the existing methods are dated, vulnerable to attack, and employ cryptographic algorithms that have been deprecated. The "Keying and Authentication for Routing Protocols" (KARP) effort aims to overhaul and improve these mechanisms. This document does not contain protocol specifications. Instead, it defines the areas where protocol specification work is needed. This document is a companion document to RFC 6518, "Keying and Authentication for Routing Protocols (KARP) Design Guidelines"; together they form the guidance and instruction KARP design teams will use to review and overhaul routing protocol transport security.

This document analyzes OSPFv2 and OSPFv3 according to the guidelines set forth in Section 4.2 of the "Keying and Authentication for Routing Protocols (KARP) Design Guidelines" (RFC 6518). Key components of solutions to gaps identified in this document are already underway.

This document analyzes OSPFv2 and OSPFv3 according to the guidelines set forth in Section 4.2 of the "Keying and Authentication for Routing Protocols (KARP) Design Guidelines" (RFC 6518). Key components of solutions to gaps identified in this document are already underway.

In this paper we give a brief introduction to five different distance vector routing protocols (RIP, AODV, EIGRP, RIP-MTI and Babel) and give some of our thoughts on how to solve the count to infinity problem. Our focus is how distance vector routing protocols, based on limited information, can prevent routing loops and the count to infinity problem.

Large variation of performance due to various environment inputs is a major impediment of implementing existing routing protocols for MANET in the battlefield. Therefore, it is a major challenge to design a routing protocol that can adapt its behavior to environment alteration. In consideration of adaptability to the environment and flexibility in protocol construction, a novel component based routing protocol methodology is proposed in this paper. Distinguished from conventional investigation of routing protocols as individual entities, this paper will firstly generalize four fundamental components for MANET routing protocols. Then, a weak component diagnosis process is proposed to improve a weak component and enhance the overall performance. Finally, preliminary simulation results demonstrate the power of the component based methodology for improving overall performance and reducing performance variation. In conclusion, the evaluation and improvement at the component level is more insightful and effective than that at the protocol level.

Secure mobile ad hoc network (MANET) routing protocols are not tested thoroughly against their security properties. Previous research focuses on verifying secure, reactive, accumulation-based routing protocols. An improved methodology and framework for secure MANET routing protocol verification is proposed which includes table-based and proactive protocols. The model checker, SPIN, is selected as the core of the secure MANET verification framework. Security is defined by both accuracy and availability: a protocol forms accurate routes and these routes are always accurate. The framework enables exhaustive verification of protocols and results in a counter-example if the protocol is deemed insecure. The framework is applied to models of the Optimized Link-State Routing (OLSR) and Secure OLSR protocol against five attack vectors. These vectors are based on known attacks against each protocol. Vulnerabilities consistent with published findings are automatically revealed. No unknown attacks were found; however, future attack vectors may lead to new attacks. The new framework for verifying secure MANET protocols extends verification capabilities to table-based and proactive protocols.

Hybrid IP networks that use both control paradigms - distributed and centralized - promise the best of two worlds: programmability and agility of SDN, and reliability and fault tolerance of distributed routing protocols like OSPF. The common approaches follow a division of labor concept, where SDN controls prioritized traffic and OSPF assures care-free operation of best effort traffic. We propose SDN Partitioning, which establishes centralized control over the distributed routing protocol by partitioning the topology into sub-domains with SDN-enabled border nodes, such that OSPF's routing updates have to traverse SDN border nodes to reach neighboring sub-domains. This allows the central controller to modify how sub-domains view one another, which in turn allows to steer inter-sub-domain traffic. The degree of dynamic control against simplicity of OSPF can be trade off by adjusting the size of the sub-domains. This paper explains the technical requirements, presents a novel scheme for balanced topology partitioning, and provides the models for common network management tasks. Our performance evaluation shows that - already in its minimum configuration with two sub-domains - SDN Partitioning provides significant improvements in all respects compared to legacy routing protocols, whereas smaller sub-domains provide network control capabilities comparable to full SDN deployment.

The ITU-T has defined an architecture and requirements for operating an Automatically Switched Optical Network (ASON).

MANET stands for Mobile Ad hoc Network. An ad hoc network consists of autonomous self organizing mobile devices that communicate with each other by creating a network and each device in this network move freely, independently and randomly. In ad hoc mobile wireless networks, energy consumption is an important issue since nodes are usually mobile and battery-operated. In this project we compared the performance of energy models (generic, mica-motes & micaz) for different routing protocols (AODV, DSR, DYMO, STAR and ZRP) in transmit, receive and idle mode[1]   and also compared the routing protocols   (AODV, DSR, DYMO, STAR and ZRP) in respect of energy consumption[2].

MANET stands for Mobile Ad hoc Network. An ad hoc network consists of autonomous self organizing mobile devices that communicate with each other by creating a network and each device in this network move freely, independently and randomly. In ad hoc mobile wireless networks, energy consumption is an important issue since nodes are usually mobile and battery-operated. In this project we compared the performance of energy models (generic, mica-motes & micaz) for different routing protocols (AODV, DSR, DYMO, STAR and ZRP) in transmit, receive and idle mode[1]   and also compared the routing protocols   (AODV, DSR, DYMO, STAR and ZRP) in respect of energy consumption[2].

Popularity of Mobile ad hoc network in research is due to their ad hoc nature and effectiveness at the time of disaster management when no infrastructure support is available. Due to the limited transmission range of wireless network interfaces, multiple network hops may be needed for nodes to exchange data across the network. In such a network, each mobile node operates as a router, forwarding packets for other mobile nodes in the network that may not be within the direct reach. Routing protocols developed for wired networks such as the distance vector or link state protocols are inadequate here as they not only assume mostly fixed topology but also have high overheads. This has lead to several routing algorithms specifically targeted for ad hoc networks. In this paper, we include the MANET supported routing protocols and their performance analysis over different performance parameters such as packet delivery ratio, delay, throughput, control overhead and energy etc. 

A Mobile Ad hoc NET work (MANET) is a self-configuring network formed by independent nodes connected to each other through wireless links. Of late, MANETs have been a vital area of interest for investigation and research due to the boom in the communication industry. An important issue related to the MANETs is their routing protocols. A number of routing protocols are in use and one of the critical factors for the comparison amongst these protocols is their performance. In this paper, authors have made an attempt to compare the performance of two of the most famous routing protocols in MANETs: Ad hoc On demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing and Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) protocols. For this purpose, the performance of both these routing protocols has been compared through simulation using Network Simulator using the parameters: number of packets delivered, communication time and Time-To-Live (TTL) of a packet. It has been established that performance of AODV based on these parameters is better than that of DSR.

In this paper, we evaluate and analyze the impact of different network loads and varying no. of nodes on distance vector and link state routing algorithms. We select three well known proactive protocols; Destination Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV) operates on distance vector routing, while Fisheye State Routing (FSR) and Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR) protocols are based on link state routing. Further, we evaluate and compare the effects on the performance of protocols by changing the routing strategies of routing algorithms. We also enhance selected protocols to achieve high performance. We take throughput, End-to-End Delay (E2ED) and Normalized Routing Load (NRL) as performance metrics for evaluation and comparison of chosen protocols both with default and enhanced versions. Based upon extensive simulations in NS-2, we compare and discuss performance trade-offs of the protocols, i.e., how a protocol achieves high packet delivery by paying some cost in the form of increased E2ED and/or routing overhead. FSR due to scope routing technique performs well in high data rates, while, OLSR is more scalable in denser networks due to limited retransmissions through Multi-Point Relays (MPRs).

This paper presents the link availability probability. We evaluate and compare the link availability probability for routing protocols; Ad hoc On-demand Distance vector (AODV), Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) and Fisheye State Routing (FSR) for different number of connections and node density. A novel contribution of this work is enhancement in existing parameters of routing protocols; AODV, DSR and FSR as MOD-AODV, MOD-DSR and MOD-FSR. From the results, we observe that MOD-DSR and DSR outperform MOD-AODV, AODV, MODOLSR and OLSR in terms of Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR), Average End-to End Delay (AE2ED), link availability probability at the cost of high value of Normalized Routing Overhead (NRO).

This Study proposes a routing strategy of combining a packet scheduling with congestion control policy that applied for LEO satellite network with high speed and multiple traffic. It not only ensures the QoS of different traffic, but also can avoid low priority traffic to be "starve" due to their weak resource competitiveness, thus it guarantees the throughput and performance of the network. In the end, we set up a LEO satellite network simulation platform in OPNET to verify the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm.

This Study proposes a routing strategy of combining a packet scheduling with congestion control policy that applied for LEO satellite network with high speed and multiple traffic. It not only ensures the QoS of different traffic, but also can avoid low priority traffic to be "starve" due to their weak resource competitiveness, thus it guarantees the throughput and performance of the network. In the end, we set up a LEO satellite network simulation platform in OPNET to verify the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm.