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he book starts out with a top-level discussion of the structure and organization of embedded computers as computers, the fetch-execute cycle, memory, Input/output. We focus on classical cpu architectures, while also looking at Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) and System on Chip (SoC) approaches. This leads us to the discussion of software for embedded. There are several differences between embedded software and software in general. Most embedded systems are resource-constrained, but this is becoming less of an issue. Embedded systems generally require real-time response, and operate in a world where the timing of the result is as or more important than its accuracy. The correct answer, late, can be worse than an approximate answer on time. Embedded systems have elements of hardware and software, and these are brought together into a working system. The systems engineering process, from requirements to testing and post-deployment support is discussed. There are known approaches that work. Software is a different animal than hardware, but the top-level principles for developing and testing derive from the same principles. Programmable hardware, in terms of FPGA’s and SoC’s introduce complexity, but can be addressed by the same engineering best practices. Embedded systems have their own set of standards, and their own unique issues in security, but an embedded computer is also a computer. Virtualization and multicore technology have added new capabilities to embedded systems.

This volume is one of several individually bound volumes that constitute the phase 11 final report (study of Embedded Computer Systems Support (ECS)). The purpose of this study was to develop a long range plan for use by HQ Air Force Logistics Command (AFLC) to manage and maintain Embedded Computer Systems on command-wide bases in the 1980's.

This volume is one of several individually bound volumes that constitute the phase 11 final report (study of Embedded Computer Systems Support (ECS)). The purpose of this study was to develop a long range plan for use by HQ Air Force Logistics Command (AFLC) to manage and maintain Embedded Computer Systems on command-wide bases in the 1980's.

Avionics Embedded Computer Systems are an important part of the United States Air Force's plans for using advanced technologies to keep their aircraft highly capable and superior. Highly desirable features such as reconfigurability, rapid turnaround, expandability, and testability are made increasingly available through the use of these embedded systems. This paper discusses Avionics Embedded Computer Systems primarily through a discussion of their Operational Flight Programs (OFPs), near and far term requirements of OFP maintainers, and current technologies being developed for OFP maintenance.

The life cycle support of the ever increasing number of computer systems embedded in weapon systems is a major challenge to the Air Force. With continued operational and support emphasis on performance and responsiveness to a dynamic mission environment, significant enhancement of support capabilities for all categories of embedded computer systems, (ECS) is required. This report contains recommendations for acquiring such capabilities. Concurrent implementation of the administrative initiatives combined with the four programmatic initiatives is recommended to address ECS life cycle support. Early implementation of the administrative initiatives is needed not only to correct deficiencies in the acquisition and operation of ECS support systems in the near term, but to establish a clear framework of policy and guidance for AFLC interactions and coordination with the development and user commands; early implementation is also required to enable the subsequent actions necessary for enhancing existing capabilities and acquiring new capabilities to improve the ECS support process through implementation of the programmatic initiatives. The recommendations for each initiative related to the ECS support process, with anticipated benefits, estimated resources, and the development period required for improving the overall future ECS support posture, are summarized.

The life cycle support of the ever increasing number of computer systems embedded in weapon systems is a major challenge to the Air Force. With continued operational and support emphasis on performance and responsiveness to a dynamic mission environment, significant enhancement of support capabilities for all categories of embedded computer systems is required. This report contains recommendations for acquiring such capabilities. (Author)

The C-17 will be the most computerized, software-intensive, transport aircraft ever built. Embedded computers are essential for the C-17 to accomplish its mission--the aircraft depends on these computers to control basic avionics functions such as flight control, communication, and instrument displays. The C- 17 relies on 19 different types of embedded computers incorporating over 80 microprocessors and about 1.3 million lines of code. This statement provides information on the current status of embedded computer and software development for the C-17. In summary, we have observed a pattern of the Air Force continuing to permit its prime contractor, McDonnell Douglas Corporation, to defer software development to future aircraft. Originally, the first aircraft (T-1), delivered in September 1991, was supposed to include all the software. But, McDonnell was unable to develop and deliver the software on time. Rather than slowing aircraft production until the software could be completed, McDonnell deferred software development, initially to the P-2 aircraft, then to the P-5 aircraft, and now to the P-6 and future aircraft. Each software development deferral further delays the Air Force's ability to fully test the software and demonstrate that the C-17 can meet all of its requirements.

This portion of the study focuses on technological forecasts in the support of Embedded Computer Systems. It evaluates such concepts as intercenter networks, computer nets, fiber optics communications, high order languages, standardization, built-in test, and operator-computer interaction.

This report provides background information on performance engineer ing and the POD performance modeling tool, and gives an overview of the project activities. Finally, the project summary section reviews the results, lessons learned, and suggests future direction. Naval mission critical, embedded computer systems (MC-ECS) must respond to external events within their allotted time, otherwise they fail. Failures may have life or death consequences. Lifecycle performance management, or performance engineering (PE), calls for building performance into systems beginning in the requirements definition phase, and continuing the performance management through the design, implementation, testing, and post-deployment phases. Experience with PE shows that it can detect and avoid project-threatening performance failures in sufficient time to correct them and enable timely delivery of a quality product. Furthermore, performance is orders of magnitude better with this approach than with a fix it later approach in which performance considerations are deferred to the testing phase and, when necessary, tuning attempts to correct performance failures. Better performance means both people and computer resources can be used to enhance the functionality of the system rather than to correct performance deficiencies. (kr)

This report provides background information on performance engineer ing and the POD performance modeling tool, and gives an overview of the project activities. Finally, the project summary section reviews the results, lessons learned, and suggests future direction. Naval mission critical, embedded computer systems (MC-ECS) must respond to external events within their allotted time, otherwise they fail. Failures may have life or death consequences. Lifecycle performance management, or performance engineering (PE), calls for building performance into systems beginning in the requirements definition phase, and continuing the performance management through the design, implementation, testing, and post-deployment phases. Experience with PE shows that it can detect and avoid project-threatening performance failures in sufficient time to correct them and enable timely delivery of a quality product. Furthermore, performance is orders of magnitude better with this approach than with a fix it later approach in which performance considerations are deferred to the testing phase and, when necessary, tuning attempts to correct performance failures. Better performance means both people and computer resources can be used to enhance the functionality of the system rather than to correct performance deficiencies. (kr)

This report provides background information on performance engineer ing and the POD performance modeling tool, and gives an overview of the project activities. Finally, the project summary section reviews the results, lessons learned, and suggests future direction. Naval mission critical, embedded computer systems (MC-ECS) must respond to external events within their allotted time, otherwise they fail. Failures may have life or death consequences. Lifecycle performance management, or performance engineering (PE), calls for building performance into systems beginning in the requirements definition phase, and continuing the performance management through the design, implementation, testing, and post-deployment phases. Experience with PE shows that it can detect and avoid project-threatening performance failures in sufficient time to correct them and enable timely delivery of a quality product. Furthermore, performance is orders of magnitude better with this approach than with a fix it later approach in which performance considerations are deferred to the testing phase and, when necessary, tuning attempts to correct performance failures. Better performance means both people and computer resources can be used to enhance the functionality of the system rather than to correct performance deficiencies. (kr)

While considerable advances have been made in the technology of software development, costs continue to rise. Research has shown that incomplete, ambiguous or inconsistent requirements specifications are a frequent cause of cost escalation and poor quality of the end product. This thesis reviews the problems in this area and their causes and examines a number of current systems and methodologies designed to better state the users' requirements. Techniques developed by the US Naval Research Laboratory for generating requirements specifications for embedded computer systems are selected for detailed examination and the results, of a limited case study in the application of these techniques to a Navy weapon system are presented. These indicate that use of the techniques need not require a high degree of expertise in computer science and that they are adaptable to new systems. (Author)

The primary purpose of this volume is to present a series of icey support issues that face today's Embedded Computer Support (ECS) Managers. It presents some of the background that has led to today's ECS support posture and a brief summary of the key findings of the analysis of the Air Force Logistics Command's current support posture.

This report describes a procedure for designing computer systems that are developed specifically to be a component of a more complex system. Two significant characteristics of such design problems are the following: the computer system interface is determined by factors outside the control of the computer system designer, and the specifications of that interface are likely to change throughout the life cycle of the system. The purpose of the procedure described in this report is to reduce maintenance costs by means of a software organization that insulates most of the programs from changes in the interface. The procedure is based on the systematic compilation of an assumption list. The assumption list describes those aspects of the interface that future users and other knowledgeable persons consider essential and therefore stable. Other aspects of the interface are ignored. An abstract interface is designed on the basis of this assumption list. A specification of the abstract interface is used to procure the major components of the system. This report explains the principles behind the procedure and illustrates its use. The success of the procedure is primarily limited by the ability of designers and future users to compile an accurate list of assumptions. A side benefit of the procedure is simpler, better structured software. Successful application of the procedure should result in both increased reliability and reduced lift-cycle costs.

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Security is one of the most if not the most important areas today. After the several attacks on the United States, security everywhere has heightened from airports to communication among the military branches legionnaires. With advanced persistent threats (APTs) on the rise following Stuxnet, government branches and agencies are required, more than ever, to follow several standards, policies and procedures to reduce the likelihood of a breach. Attack vectors today are very advanced and are going to continue to get more and more advanced as security controls advance. This creates a need for networks and systems to be in an updated, patched and secured state in a launch control system environment. Attacks on critical systems are becoming more and more relevant and frequent. Nation states are hacking into critical networks that might control electrical power grids or water dams as well as carrying out advanced persistent threat (APTs) attacks on government entities. NASA, as an organization, must protect its self from attacks from all different types of attackers with different motives. Although the International Space Station was created, there is still competition between the different space programs. With that in mind, NASA might get attacked and breached for various reasons such as espionage or sabotage. My project will provide a way for NASA to complete an in house penetration test which includes: asset discovery, vulnerability scans, exploit vulnerabilities and also provide forensic information to harden systems. Completing penetration testing is a part of the compliance requirements of the Federal Information Security Act (FISMA) and NASA NPR 2810.1 and related NASA Handbooks. This project is to demonstrate how in house penetration testing can be conducted that will satisfy all of the compliance requirements of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), as outlined in FISMA. By the end of this project, I hope to have carried out the tasks stated above as well as gain an immense knowledge about compliance, security tools, networks and network devices, as well as policies and procedures.

This portion of the study records the baseline description of current electronic warfare support. It will serve as a point of departure for recommending a plan for improved support of airborne and ground electronic warfare systems. It includes support of electronic warfare programs such as: siftware, airborne electronic warfare, radar warning, jammers, avionics, integration, ground support, receiver, and emitter systems.

While considerable advances have been made in the technology of software development, costs continue to rise. Research has shown that incomplete, ambiguous or inconsistent requirements specifications are a frequent cause of cost escalation and poor quality of the end product. This thesis reviews the problems in this area and their causes and examines a number of current systems and methodologies designed to better state the users' requirements. Techniques developed by the US Naval Research Laboratory for generating requirements specifications for embedded computer systems are selected for detailed examination and the results of a limited case study in the application of these techniques to a Navy weapon system are presented. These indicate that use of the techniques need not require a high degree of expertise in computer science and that they are adaptable to new systems.

Volume 4 of the Embedded Computer Systems (ECS) Support study focuses on ECS as it relates to Automatic Test Equipment (ATE). It presents the background and current status of the Air Force Logistics Command support of ATE.

Volume 4 of the Embedded Computer Systems (ECS) Support study focuses on ECS as it relates to Automatic Test Equipment (ATE). It presents the background and current status of the Air Force Logistics Command support of ATE.

This report provides a mapping of the requirements in the final report, Requirements for Developing Embedded Real Time Trusted Computer Systems (ERT-TCSs) to the classes in the Department of Defense Trusted Computer System Evaluation Criteria (TCSEC DOD 5200.28-STD, alias the 'Orange Book'). Because the TCSEC was intended for traditional automated data processing equipment, it is insufficent for embedded real time trusted computer systems. Therefore the TCSEC had to be adapted for ERT-TCSs. NCSC does not officially sanction this report, which was only a research effort.

An Aircrew Training Device (ATD) is an electromechnical system used to train air crews or missile launch crews by simulation of the actual operating conditions, procedures, and environment. This volume considers the ATD category of Embedded Computer System Support.

The primary focus of this portion of the overall study was to establish Embedded Computer Systems (ECS) support baseline for representative Communications-Electronics (C-E) systems. The baseline was then used as a reference point for assessing the current level of ECS support and for identifying deficiencies in projected C-E support systems. This baseline will also serve as a point of departure for developing a long range Communications-Electronics ECS support plan.

The primary focus of this portion of the overall study was to establish Embedded Computer Systems (ECS) support baseline for representative Communications-Electronics (C-E) systems. The baseline was then used as a reference point for assessing the current level of ECS support and for identifying deficiencies in projected C-E support systems. This baseline will also serve as a point of departure for developing a long range Communications-Electronics ECS support plan.

User training on computer-aided design (CAD) systems traditionally has been expensive and ineffective. In addition, rapid changes in CAD software demand frequent update instruction to be able to take full advantage of the system's capabilities. As the U.S. army Corps of Engineers begins using CAD technology to an increasing degree, there is a great need for low-cost, effective teaching programs. Embedded instruction programs represent a promising answer to this need. This technology involves the incorporation of tutorial programs directly into the software being taught, with the software used to drive the training session. Such a teaching method allows users to participate in self-paced study on the system they will be using in actual day-to-day operations. The U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratory (USE-CERL) has developed and tested an embedded instruction program for teaching CAD. The Program was demonstrated in a field test funded under the Technology Transfer Test Bed program. The field test results indicate that architects and engineers profit from online instruction embedded in the CAD system that they are learning. There is wide variability in the time spent studying the lessons as well as in learning strategies employed by different students. Follow-up questionnaires revealed a preference for this type of instruction over traditional methods.

This volume presents data that indicates the extent of feasibility and application of the national software works to current and future Air Force Logistics Command (AFLC) support requirements for Embedded Computer Systems. Additionally, a discussion of applicability of computer networking as a generalized aid to AFLC support requirements is presented.

Defense weapons systems capabilities are increasingly dependent on software, which is rapidly becoming a very costly and technically challenging component. However, Defense does not know how much it spends on this critical technology. Estimates of software costs range from $24 billion to $32 billion annually-about 8 to 11 percent of Defense's total budget. However, these estimates are rough at best because Defense has not identified or tracked software costs as a discrete item in its weapons systems development programs. Recognizing the importance of tracking software costs, Defense has recently taken action to require new weapons programs to separately identify and report software costs. Defense is also exploring ways to reduce the cost of software. Collecting more complete embedded software cost information could enable Defense to more effectively manage its weapons programs.

This portion of the study focuses on Operational Flight Programs (OFP'S) pertaining to avionics functions. Specifically it relates to the following generic avionics functions: navigation, controls and displays, radar, weapon control/delivery. Flight control, flight recording, engines, and built-in-test. The weapon systems/subsystems and the primary function controlled by their respective OFP'S are shown and evaluated.

This is a collection of UNCLASSIFIED papers to be distributed to the attendees of the Second AFSC Avionics Standardization Conference at the Convention Center, Dayton, Ohio. The scope of the Conference includes the complete range of DoD approved embedded computer hardware/software and related interface standards as well as standard subsystems used within the Tri-Service community and NATO. The theme of the conference is Rational Standardization. Lessons Learned as well as the pros and cons of standardization are highlighted. (Author)

Particle filtering methods are gradually attaining significant importance in a variety of embedded computer vision applications. For example, in smart camera systems, object tracking is a very important application and particle filter based tracking algorithms have shown promising results with robust tracking performance. However, most particle filters involve vast amount of computational complexity thereby intensifying the challenges faced in their real-time, embedded implementation. Many of these applications share common characteristics, and the same system design can be reused by identifying and varying key system parameters and varying them appropriately. In this paper, we present a System- on-Chip (SoC) architecture involving both hardware and software components for a class of particle filters. The framework uses parameterization to enable fast and efficient reuse of the architecture with minimal re-design effort for a wide range of particle filtering applications as well as implementation platforms. Using this framework, we explore different design options for implementing three different particle filtering applications on field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs). The first two applications involve particle filters with one-dimensional state transition models, and are used to demonstrate the key features of the framework. The main focus of this paper is on design methodology for hardware/software implementation of multi-dimensional particle filter application and we explore this in the third application which is a 3D facial pose tracking system for videos. In this multi-dimensional particle filtering application, we extend our proposed architecture with models for hardware/software co-design so that limited hardware resources can be utilized most effectively. Our experiments demonstrate that the framework is easy and intuitive to use, while providing for efficient design and implementation.