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1Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals

By Immanuel Kant

The Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, also known as The Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals or Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals or Grounding of the Metaphysics of Morals, is Immanuel Kant's first contribution to moral philosophy. It argues for an <i>a priori</i> basis for morality. Where the Critique of Pure Reason laid out Kant's metaphysical and epistemological ideas, this relatively short, primarily meta-ethical, work was intended to outline and define the concepts and arguments shaping his future work The Metaphysics of Morals. However, the latter work is much less readable than the Fundamental Principles. (Summary from Wikipedia)

The Critique of Pure Reason, first published in 1781 with a second edition in 1787, has been called the most influential and important philosophical text of the modern age.<br><br>Kant saw the Critique of Pure Reason as an attempt to bridge the gap between rationalism (there are significant ways in which our concepts and knowledge are gained independently of sense experience) and empiricism (sense experience is the ultimate source of all our concepts and knowledge) and, in particular, to counter the radical empiricism of David Hume (our beliefs are purely the result of accumulated habits, developed in response to accumulated sense experiences). Using the methods of science, Kant demonstrates that though each mind may, indeed, create its own universe, those universes are guided by certain common laws, which are rationally discernible. (Summary by Ticktockman)

This tripartite essay – published variously as “On the Popular Judgment” (J. Richardson trans.), “On the Old Saw” (E.B. Ashton trans.), or “On the Common Saying” (both M.J. Gregor and H.B. Nisbet) – Kant takes up the issue of the relation of theory to practice in three distinct ways. In the first, he replies to Christian Garve’s criticism of his moral theory, in the second, he distances himself from Thomas Hobbes, and in the third, Moses Mendelssohn. The three taken together are representative of the breadth of Kant’s moral and political thought; the first section being concerned with the individual, the second with the state, and the third with the species. Although this is, on the whole, a difficult piece to approach, the second and third sections are often read as a way into Kant’s political thought, and serve this purpose well, especially when read alongside his Perpetual Peace. (Summary by D.E. Wittkower.)

This essay, written in 1795, puts forth a plan for a lasting peace between nations and peoples. Kant puts forth necessary means to any peace, and argues that nations can be brought into federation with one another without loss of sovereignty. In one translation, telling of the historical impact of this essay, this federation is called a “league of nations.” <br /><br /> The supplements and appendices are of considerable interest on their own. The supplements contain an argument regarding the use which nature makes of war, and the way in which nature, in the end, impels us towards peace. The appendices return to the question of whether his theory is mere theory, or whether it bears translation into practice. In this, he distinguishes between the moral politician and the political moralist, pointing out ways in which practical considerations conceal and excuse behavior that leads us towards discord and war.<br /><br /> This essay continues to be relevant, and of great importance today, much to our shame. We hope still to find the perpetual peace which Kant argued as a obligatory goal, and we still have need of fear that we will, as Kant warned, “find Perpetual Peace only in the wide grave which is to cover all the abomination of the deeds of violence and their authors.” (Summary by D.E. Wittkower)

This essay of Kant’s on copyright argues that the unlicensed copying of books cannot possibly be permissible, due to the fact that it assumes a consent on the part of the author which it is logically impossible for the author to give. The argument is dependent upon an assumption that the writings be commodified, for the reason why the author is unable to possibly give consent to multiple publishers is due to the author’s will – to communicate with the public – necessitating the profitability of the publisher, for, it is assumed, there is no way to communicate with the public at large without a great expense which can only be borne by a publishing firm. This is, of course, no longer a necessary assumption. <br><br>Other arguments here are also of interest: this is a foundational document in claims regarding the moral rights of authors, and Kant’s account of the connection between the communicative intent of the author and the rights resultant is of continuing importance (even though it is not often taken into account in contemporary debates, and has only a tenuous relation to contemporary copyright law); the distinction between works and acts in the “Universal Observation” (the third section of the essay) strikes us as odd today, but is worthy of consideration; his admission of the permissibility of derivative works is striking; and, strangely, the first footnote uses as a reductio ad absurdum an idea of liability which underlies what United States law today calls by the name of “contributory infringement.” (Summary by D.E. Wittkower)

6Critique of Practical Reason

By Immanuel Kant

<i>The Critique of Practical Reason</i> (<i>Kritik der praktischen Vernunft</i>) is the second of Immanuel Kant's three critiques, first published in 1788. It follows on from his <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i> and deals with his moral philosophy. The second Critique exercised a decisive influence over the subsequent development of the field of ethics and moral philosophy, becoming the principle reference point for ethical systems that focus on the rightness or wrongness of actions themselves, as opposed to the rightness or wrongness of the consequences of those actions. Subsequently termed “deontological ethics”, Kant’s ethical system also laid the groundwork of moral absolutism, the belief that there are absolute standards against which moral questions can be judged, and that certain actions are right or wrong, devoid of the context of the act. (Summary by Wikipedia and Ticktockman)

In der Abhandlung „Zum ewigen Frieden" wendet Kant die Grundsätze seiner Moralphilosophie auf die Beziehungen zwischen Staaten an. Er stellt klar, dass Frieden kein natürlicher Zustand sei und deshalb gestiftet werden müsse. Um das Ziel „Weltfrieden“ zu verwirklichen, müssten sich die Staaten einem allgemein verbindlichen Völkerrecht unterordnen. In seinen Bestimmungen und Erläuterungen nimmt Kant zahlreiche Entwicklungen hin zum modernen Völkerrecht vorweg.<br></br> In his essay "Perpetual Peace", Kant applies the principles of his moral philosophy to the relations between nations. He points out that peace is not a natural state and therefore must be instituted through human effort. To make "world peace" come true, all nations should submit to general and binding international laws. In his definitions and explanations, Kant anticipates many aspects of the development of modern international law. (Summary by Al-Kadi)

This essay, written in 1795, puts forth a plan for a lasting peace between nations and peoples. Kant puts forth necessary means to any peace, and argues that nations can be brought into federation with one another without loss of sovereignty. In one translation, telling of the historical impact of this essay, this federation is called a “league of nations.” The supplements and appendices are of considerable interest on their own. The supplements contain an argument regarding the use which nature makes of war, and the way in which nature, in the end, impels us towards peace. The appendices return to the question of whether his theory is mere theory, or whether it bears translation into practice. In this, he distinguishes between the moral politician and the political moralist, pointing out ways in which practical considerations conceal and excuse behavior that leads us towards discord and war. This essay continues to be relevant, and of great importance today, much to our shame. We hope still to find the perpetual peace which Kant argued as a obligatory goal, and we still have need of fear that we will, as Kant warned, “find perpetual peace only in the wide tomb which conceals all the horrible deeds of violence along with their perpetrators. - Summary by D.E. Wittkower

Immanuel Kant gave a series of lectures on anthropology 1772-1773, 1795-1796 at the University of Königsberg, which was founded in 1544. His lectures dealt with recognizing the internal and external in man, cognition, sensuousness, the five senses, as well as the soul and the mind. They were gathered together and published in 1798 and then published in English in <i>The Journal of Speculative Philosophy</i> in 1867, volumes 9-16. Therefore, several texts will be used for this book. I was able to find sections 1-37 and then section 43, and sections 47-57. It seems that sections 38-42, 44-46 are not available. This is book one of his longer works.<BR><BR> <I>My favorite quotes</i><BR> If someone has purposely caused a disaster, and it is questionable whether he is at all, or in what degree he is to be, blamed for it, and whether or not he was insane at the time of the commission of the deed, the court should not refer him to the medical facility – the court itself being incompetent to decide upon such a case – but to the philosophical faculty. On this ground the question whether the accused was in the possession of all the faculties of his understanding and judgment, is altogether of a psychological nature….<BR><BR> Helmont says, that, after having taken a certain dose of “napell” – a poisonous root, he felt as if he thought in his stomach. Many people have experimented with opium to such an extent that they finally felt their minds weaken when they neglected to use this stimulant of their brain.<BR><BR> (Summary by Craig Campbell)<BR><BR> Links to texts:<BR> <a href="https://archive.org/stream/journalspeculat06harrgoog#page/n28/mode/1up url">Sections 1-2</a><BR> <a href="https://archive.org/stream/journalspeculat06harrgoog#page/n251/mode/1up url">Sections 3-4</a><BR> <a href="https://archive.org/stream/journalspeculat06harrgoog#page/n418/mode/1up url">Sections 5-7</a><BR> <a href="https://archive.org/stream/journalspeculat11unkngoog#page/n328/mode/1up url">Section 8</a><BR> <a href="https://archive.org/stream/journalofspecula11harruoft#page/310/mode/1up url">Sections 9-10</a><BR> <a href="https://archive.org/stream/journalofspecula11harruoft#page/353/mode/1up url">Sections 11-13</a><BR> <a href="https://archive.org/stream/journalspeculat01unkngoog#page/n289/mode/1up url">Sections 14-15</a><BR> <a href="https://archive.org/stream/journalofspecula14harruoft#page/154/mode/1up url">Sections 16-19</a><BR> <a href="https://archive.org/stream/journalofspecula15harruoft#page/62/mode/1up url">Section 20</a><BR> <a href="https://archive.org/stream/journalspeculat19unkngoog#page/n56/mode/1up url">Sections 21-22</a><BR> <a href="https://archive.org/stream/journalspeculat19unkngoog#page/n404/mode/1up url">Sections 23-26</a>

10Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics

By Immanuel Kant

Kant's Prolegomena, although a small book, is indubitably the most important of his writings. It furnishes us with a key to his main work, The Critique of Pure Reason; in fact, it is an extract containing all the salient ideas of Kant's system. It approaches the subject in the simplest and most direct way, and is therefore best adapted as an introduction into his philosophy. - Summary by Open Court Publishing Company

Kant uses this essay from 1795 to propose a peace program to be implemented by governments. Summary by MaryAnn

Analysis of the writings of Kant's contemporary, the spiritualist religious philosopher Swedenborg, whose ideas still have a following in present times. - Summary by Peter Tucker