Disentangling The Pathways From Sadism To Gazing Behavior: The Mediating Roles Of Empathy, Impulsivity, And Aggression. - Info and Reading Options

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This study explores whether trait everyday sadism predicts differences in gazing behavior in response to emotional stimuli. Sadism, as a part of the Dark Tetrad (DT), is characterized by the tendency to derive pleasure from inflicting physical or psychological pain on others. The DT traits—narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism—are associated with distinct patterns of cognitive and emotional processing (e.g. Jonason & Krause, 2013; Wertag et al., 2023). Prior research suggests that individuals high in sadistic tendencies respond to emotional stimuli—particularly violent or aversive content—in atypical ways. For example, sadism has been positively correlated with increased enjoyment of violent media and with positive emotional reactions to others' suffering (e.g., Monaghan & Marcus, 2025; Wertag et al., 2023; Thomas & Egan, 2022). However, systematic investigations of attentional processes, such as gaze behavior in response to emotional stimuli, remain scarce. Therefore, a systematic study is essential to deepen our understanding of its underlying mechanisms and to inform the design of future research involving emotional stimuli.We examine the predictive power of sadism on gazing behavior while watching emotional pictures. To date, no studies have directly investigated the effects of sadism on gaze patterns; existing findings are limited to atypical evaluations of emotional and sexual images. Since emotional valence appraisal and gaze behavior are closely linked as part of emotional processing, we assume that sadism is associated with distinct gazing behavior. Due to the exploratory nature of the study and the limited prior evidence, we do not propose directional hypotheses. We examine preferences for emotional valence, operationalized as the relative dwelling time on positive versus negative stimuli. Previous research has shown that narcissism is associated with a preference for violent or negative motives (Tucaković & Marković, 2021). Given the conceptual overlap and empirical correlations between narcissism, psychopathy, Machiavellianism and sadism (e.g., Međedović & Petrović, 2015), we explore whether similar attentional patterns can be observed in individuals high in sadism. We examine the incremental validity of sadism by investigating whether it provides additional explanatory power for variance in gazing behavior beyond the predictive utility of its conceptually related constructs that have previously been associated with visual attention processes, including empathy (lack of empathy), impulsivity, and aggression. These constructs were selected based on prior findings indicating their relevance for emotional reactivity and attentional allocation (e.g., Cowan et al., 2014; Aluja et al., 2015; Gantiva et al., 2014) and their connection to sadism (e.g. Pajevic et al., 2018; Duan et al., 2021). Finally, we examine three mediation models that together form a theoretical framework linking sadism to gazing behavior (see figure 1). The first model assumes that the relationship between sadism and gazing behavior is mediated by aggression. Prior studies have consistently shown positive associations between sadism and aggressive tendencies (e.g., Duan et al., 2021; Buckels et al., 2013; Reidy et al., 2011). Additionally, aggression has been linked to altered emotional processing, including atypical evaluations of emotional stimuli and deviant startle responses (Gantiva et al., 2014; Gantiva, Díaz, et al., 2014), suggesting that aggressive traits may influence attentional patterns toward emotional content. The second model investigates whether whether the association between sadism and aggression is mediated by empathy. Sadistic traits have been associated with reduced empathy (Pajevic et al., 2018), which in turn has been identified as a key factor in the emergence of aggressive behavior (e.g., Buckels et al., 2013). This model tests the idea that empathy deficits may serve as an underlying mechanism through which sadistic individuals exhibit higher levels of aggression. The third model examines whether impulsivity mediates the relationship between sadism and aggression. Sadism has been positively associated with impulsivity (March et al., 2017), which in turn has consistently been linked to or predictive of aggression (e.g., Duan et al., 2021; Hatfield & Dula, 2014). This model aims to capture the role of poor behavioral control as a potential pathway from sadism to aggression. In summary, this study examines: (1) the main effects of sadism on gazing behavior, (2) sadists valence-related preference in visual attention, (3) the incremental predictive validity of sadism and (4) mediated pathways between sadism and gazing behavior.

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